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Our research

MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit

Using cognitive theory and innovations in neuroscience to understand and improve mental wellbeing across the lifespan

Working memory and its disorders

Working memory is a cognitive system providing flexible temporary storage of information that is vital for everyday cognitive activities such as learning new words, following instructions, and planning actions. Impairments in working memory in childhood are common and are closely associated with a range of learning problems including attention, language and reading difficulties. They are also present in many diseases and disorders of adulthood, including cardiovascular disease.

The aims of our research are:

  • to understand the causes of working memory problems both in children and in older individuals, by investigating both the underlying cognitive processes and the brain systems that support them, and
  • to explore the potential of therapeutic techniques including intensive cognitive training to overcome the everyday cognitive problems found in these and other populations with memory problems.

Our research builds on partnerships with professional groups including teachers, educational psychologists, neuropsychologists and clinical psychologists designed to improve the diagnosis and support for individuals with working memory and associated cognitive difficulties. Our research is conducted both in schools and in the Child Development Facility at the Unit.

 Projects

Working memory training in children
The aim of this project is to establish and compare the origins of working memory difficulties in two populations of children known to have memory problems: those identified on the basis solely of poor working memory performance, and those with poor language skills. In each case we are exploring whether the memory problems are associated with more basic deficits in processing, in a broader range of executive functions, or are specific to components of working memory. The extent to which the working memory and other difficulties of the two groups respond to an intensive cognitive training programme will also be investigated. Further work headed by Dr Francesca Cormack will employ structural and functional neuroimaging techniques to establish whether the similar working memory profiles in the two groups have common or distinct neural bases, and to chart the neural changes mediating responsiveness to intervention.

Relevant publications

Gathercole, S. E. & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. Sage Publishing.

Gathercole, S.E., Dunning, D.L., & Holmes, J. (2012) Cogmed training: Let’s be realistic about intervention research. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. doi 10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.07.007.

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Place, M., Dunning, D., Hilton, K., & Elliott, J. (2010). Working memory deficits can be overcome: Impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 827-836

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12, F9-F15.

Roberts G, Quach J, Gold J, Anderson P, Rockards F, Mensah F, Ainley J, Gathercole SE, Wake M. (2011). Can improving working memory prevent academic difficulties? A school based randomized controlled trial. BMC Pediatrics, 11, 57.

Supporting the transfer of training
While adaptive cognitive training paradigms have been shown to boost working memory performance in populations of children with poor memory skills, there is as yet little evidence that the gains transfer to spontaneous use of working memory in everyday situations such as classroom learning. With Professor Robert Logie at Edinburgh University we have developed a virtual reality environment of a school in which the participant receives instructions and must then navigate through the school to perform them. We will be using this environment to encourage children to apply the strategies induced by intensive cognitive training to novel situations as a means of generalising training gains to everyday and educationally-significant activities.

Relevant publications

Dunning DL, Holmes J, Gathercole SE. Does working memory training improve the classroom performance of children with low working memory? A randomised controlled trial. Manuscript undergoing revision

Gathercole, S.E., Dunning, D.L., & Holmes, J. (2012) Cogmed training: Let’s be realistic about intervention research. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. doi 10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.07.007.

Gathercole SE, Durling M, Evans S. Jeffcock S, Stone (S2008). Working memory abilities and children’s performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 1019-1037.

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12, F9-F15.

Working memory and following instructions
It is already well-established that working memory plays an important role in following sequences of instructions such as pick up the red pencil and put it on the blue folder, and then touch the yellow ruler. In two collaborations with CBSU scientists we are exploring whether the impact of working memory problems in children extends to other aspects of complex goal-directed behaviour. With Bob Carlyon and Etienne Goudrain, we are investigating whether the ability to track voices in complex auditory environments is compromised by working memory limitations. In a further study with John Duncan, the capacity to switch attention in responses to cues in a rapidly-changing environment will be explored in children with and without memory problems.

Relevant publications

Gathercole SE, Durling M, Evans S. Jeffcock S, Stone (2008). Working memory abilities and children’s performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 1019-1037.

Mechanisms of working memory training
In recent years there has been widespread interest in the impact of intensive working memory training programmes not only on memory abilities but also on nonverbal reasoning, an ability closely associated with fluid intelligence. However, findings often lack consistency and the paradigms employed across studies vary in many ways. In this project, conducted in collaboration with Adam Hampshire of London, Ontario and CBSU scientists Tim Dalgleish and Suzanne Schweizer, we compare the impacts of the two most widely-used training paradigms on a variety of core cognitive abilities. We hope to be able to establish whether core transferable abilities are enhanced in any training situations that tax working memory or, alternatively, that training gains are task-specific and so may be unlikely to generalise without further training support.

Relevant publications

Dunning DL, Holmes J, Gathercole SE. Does working memory training improve the classroom performance of children with low working memory? A randomised controlled trial. Manuscript undergoing revision

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Place, M., Dunning, D., Hilton, K., & Elliott, J. (2010). Working memory deficits can be overcome: Impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 827-836

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12, F9-F15.

Working memory and hypertension
Elevated blood pressure in adulthood is associated with deficits in executive functions including working memory that persist even after successful anti-hypertensive treatment is established. In this project we investigate a range of basic processing and higher-level cognitive abilities in individuals with relatively low or high blood pressure in the absence of a diagnosis of clinical hypertension. The structural characteristics of the brain will be assessed using a variety of techniques to identify the aspects of brain morphology linked with cognitive abilities that change with blood pressure. Subsequent work will establish whether anatomical and associated cognitive deficits caused by hypertension can be compensated by cognitive training methods found to be effective in other populations. If successful, this approach has the potential to enhance the quality of life in this common condition of both the working and retired adult population.

Relevant publications

Murphy JJ, Fuat A, Littlewood E, Conway B, Gathercole SE (2010). Working memory deficits in treated and untreated hypertension. Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 12, A64.
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Research team

Publications

Wang S, Gathercole, SE (in press). Working memory deficits in children with reading difficulties: Memory span and dual task coordination. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology.Warmington M, Hitch GJ, Gathercole SE. (2012). Improving word learning in children using an errorless technique. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, http://10.1016/j.jecp.2012.10.007Gathercole SE, Dunning D, Holmes J (2012). Cogmed training: Let’s be realistic about intervention research. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1, Issue 3, 201-203Engel de Abreu, P. M. J. & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology.  doi: 10.1037/a0028390Lanfranchi S, Baddeley AD, Gathercole S, Vianello R (2012). Working memory in Down syndrome: is there a dual task deficit? Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 56, 157-166, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2011.01444.Roberts G, Quach J, Gold J, Anderson P, Rockards F, Mensah F, Ainley J, Gathercole SE, Wake M. (2011). Can improving working memory prevent academic difficulties? A school based randomized controlled trial. BMC Pediatrics, 11, 57, doi:  10.1186/1471-2431-11-57Engel de Abreu PMJ, Gathercole SE, Martin, R. (2011). Disentangling the relationship between working memory and language: The roles of short-term storage and cognitive control. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 569-574.  Doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.06.002.

Hall D, Gathercole SE. (2011). Serial recall of rhythms and verbal sequences: Impacts of concurrent tasks and irrelevant sound. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 1580-1592.

Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Dunning D. (2010). Poor working memory: Impact and interventions. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, Volume 39, 2010, 1-43.

Elliott, JG, Gathercole SE, Alloway, TP, Holmes, J & Kirkwood, H. (2010). An evaluation of a classroom-based intervention to help overcome working memory difficulties and improve long-term academic achievement. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 9, 227-250.

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Place, M., Alloway, T. P., Elliott, J. G., & Hilton, K. A. (2010). An assessment of the diagnostic utility of executive function assessments in the identification of ADHD in children. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 15, 37-43.

Alloway, TP, Gathercole, SE, & Elliott, J (2010). Examing the link between working memory behaviour and academic attainment in children with ADHD. Developmental Medicine and Child Neuology, 40, 353-366.

Engel de Abreu, PMJ, Conway ARA, & Gathercole SE. (2010). Working memory and fluid intelligence in young children. Intelligence, 38, 552-561.

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Place, M., Dunning, D., Hilton, K., & Elliott, J. (2010). Working memory deficits can be overcome: Impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 827-836

Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Dunning D, (2010). Poor working memory: Impact and interventions. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, Volume 39, 2010, Pages 1-43.

Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12, F9-F15.

Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Holmes, J., Place, M., Elliott, J. G., & Hilton, K. (2009). The diagnostic utility of behavioral checklists in identifying children with ADHD and children with working memory deficits. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40, 353-366.

Sumner, C.R., Gathercole, S. E., Greenbaum, M., Rubin, R., Williams, D., Hollandbeck, M., Wietecha, L. (2009). Atomoxetine for the treatment of Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children with ADHD and dyslexia. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 3, 40.

Archibald, L. M. D., Gathercole, S. E., Joanisse, M. F. (2009). Multisyllabic nonwords: More than a string of syllables. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 3, 1712-1722.

Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H. J., Elliott, J. G. (2009). The Working Memory Rating Scale: A classroom-based behavioral assessment of working memory. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 242-245.

Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliott, J. (2009). The cognitive and behavioural characteristics of children with low working memory. Child Development, 80, 606-621.

Gathercole, SE, Briscoe J, Thorn, A, et al. (2008). Deficits in verbal short-term memory and learning in children with poor phonological short-term emmory skills. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 474-490.

Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H. J., & Elliott, J. G. (2008).  Evaluating the validity of the Automated Working Memory Assessment. Educational Psychology, 28, 725-734.

Engel, P. M. J., Heloisa Dos Santos, F., & Gathercole, S. E. (2008). Are working memory measures free of socio-economic influence? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51, 1580-1587.

Gathercole, S. E., Durling, M. Evans, S. Jeffcock, & S. Stone (2008). Working memory abilities and children’s performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 1019-1037.

Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S.E. (2008). The role of sentence recall in reading and language skills of children with learning difficulties. Learning and Individual Differences, 15, 271-282.

Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Kirkwood, H. J., Elliott, J. G., Holmes, J., & Hilton, K. A. (2008). Attentional and executive behavioural profiles of children with poor working memory. Learning and Individual Differences, 18, 214-223.

Gathercole, S. E., (2008). Deficits in verbal long-term memory and learning in children with poor phonological short-term memory skills. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 474-490.

Keehner, M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2007). Cognitive adaptations arising from non-native experience of sign language in hearing adults. Memory and Cognition, 35, 752-761.

Archibald, L.M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Nonword repetition: A comparison of tests. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 970-983.

Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Nonword repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 513-543.

Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Complexities and constraints in nonword repetition and word learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 599-613.

Spooner, A., Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (2006). Does weak reading comprehension reflect an integration deficit? Journal of Research in Reading, 29. 173-193.

Archibald, L.M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Visuospatial immediate memory in Specific Language Impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 265-277.

Gathercole, S.E., Alloway, T.P., Willis, C.S., & Adams, A.M. (2006). Working memory in children with reading disabilities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 93, 265-281.

Santos, F.H., Bueno, O.F.A., Gathercole, S.E.  (2006). Errors in nonword repetition: Bridging short- and long-term memory. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological 

Research, 30, 371-385.

St Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements on national curriculum tests: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 746-759.

Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (2006). Short-term and working memory impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders: Diagnosis and remedial support. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry. 47, 4-15.

Conlin, J. A., Gathercole, S. E., & Adams, J.W. (2005). Stimulus similarity decrements in children’s working memory span. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1434-1446.

Lobley, K., Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (2005). Phonological similarity effects in verbal complex span. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1462-1478.

Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Adams, A.-M., Willis, C. S. (2005). Working memory abilities in children with special educational needs. Educational and Child Psychology, 22, 56-67.

Conlin, J. A., Gathercole, S. E., & Adams, J.W. (2005). Children’s working memory: Investigating performance limitations in complex span tasks. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 90, 303-317.

Thorn, A. S. C., Gathercole, S. E., & Frankish, C. R. (2005). Redintegration and the benefits of long-term knowledge in verbal short-term memory: An evaluation of Schweikert’s (1993) multinomial processing tree model. Cognitive Psychology, 50, 133-158.

Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S.E., Adams, A.M., Willis, C. S., Eaglen, R., & Lamont, E. (2005). Working memory and phonological awareness as predictors of progress towards early learning goals at school entry. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23, 417-426.

Gathercole, S. E., Tiffany, C., Briscoe, J., Thorn, A. S. C., & ALSPAC Team (2005). Developmental consequences of poor phonological short-term memory function in childhood: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 46, 598-611.

Alloway, T. P., & Gathercole, S. E. (2005). Working memory and short-term sentence recall in young children. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 17, 207-220.

Gathercole, S. E. (2004). Working memory and learning during the school years. Proceedings of the British Academy, 125, 365-380.

Spooner, A. L. R., Baddeley, A. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2004). Can reading and comprehension be separated in the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 187-204.

Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C. S., & Adams, A.-M. (2004). A structural analysis of working memory and related cognitive skills in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 85-170.

Pickering, S. J.  & Gathercole, S. E. (2004). Distinctive working memory profiles in children with special educational needs. Educational Psychology, 24, 393-408.

Farran, E. K., Jarrold, C., & Gathercole, S. E. (2001). Block design performance in WIlliams syndrom phenotype: A problem with mental imagery? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 719-728.

Willis, C. S., & Gathercole, S. E. (2001). Phonological short-term memory contributions to sentence processing in young children. Memory, 9, 349-364.

Briscoe, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Marlow, N. (2001). Everyday memory and cognitive ability in children born very prematurely. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 749-754.

Thorn, A. S. C., Frankish, C. R., & Gathercole, S. E. (2008). The influence of long-term knowledge on short-term memory: Evidence for multiple mechanisms, pp. 198-219. In A. S. C. Thorn & C. R. Frankish (Eds.), Interactions between short-term and long-term memory in the verbal domain. Psychology Press.

Moulin, C. J. A., & Gathercole, S .E. (2008).  Memory changes across the lifespan. In: Cohen, G. & Conway, M. A. (Eds), Memory in the real world. (3rd ed), pp. 306-326. Psychology Press: Hove.

Gathercole, S. E. (2007). Working memory. In H. L. Roediger (Ed.), Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference. Erlbaum.

Gathercole, S. E. (2007). The concept of working memory. In Y. Dudai, R. Roediger, E. Tulving, & S. Fitzpatrick (Eds), Science of Memory: Concepts. Elsevier.

Gathercole S. E. (2007). Working memory and language. In G. Gaskell (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. Oxford University Press.

Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (in press). Working memory and classroom learning. In K. Thurman & K. Fiorello (Eds), Cognitive development in K-3 classroom learning: research applications. Erlbaum USA.

Archibald, L. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Short-term and working memory in Specific Language Impairment. In Alloway, T. P. & Gathercole, S. E. (Eds), Working memory in neurodevelopmental conditions. Psychology Press.

Gathercole, S. E., Elliott, J., & Alloway, T. P. (Spring 2008). Identifying and supporting children with poor working memory. Dyslexia Review, 4-8.

Elliott, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. May 2008. In temporary storage. Special!, 8-11.

Gathercole, S. E. (2008). Working memory in the classroom. Psychologist, 21, 382-385.

Alloway, T. P., & Gathercole, S. E. (2005). Working memory. Teaching, Thinking & Creativity, 48-51, Winter issue.

Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (2004). Working memory and classroom learning. Dyslexia Review, 15, 4-10.

 

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The Centre for Attention, Learning and Memory (CALM)

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Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience.

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Address: 15 Chaucer Road,Cambridge,
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Email: info@mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk

Tel: (+44) (0)1223 766166

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