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LEARNING AND MEMORY
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Project 65 - Human Learning and Memory in Normality and Pathology
65.1 Working Memory (Baddeley, Gathercole, Logie, Valentine)
Working memory is the system responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information used in performing a wide range of cognitive tasks such as reasoning, comprehension and learning. A previously-developed model involves three components, a controlling Central Executive system, assisted by two slave systems, the Articulatory Loop which is responsible for verbal information, and the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad that holds and manipulates visual images.
Baddeley, in collaboration with Vallar in Milan and Wilson in Southampton, has continued to explore the function of the Articulatory Loop, in particular studying the cognitive performance of patients with specific deficits to this component of working memory. Two patients have been studied in some detail, one showing a clear deficit with certain types of long and complex sentence, but good comprehension otherwise [197], while the second [199] shows a much more dramatic impairment in comprehension of all but short sentences.
The nature of the subvocal rehearsal process has been explored in a collaborative study with Wilson [198], on an anarthric patient who had lost any capacity to speak but retained normal language as reflected in comprehension and writing. He proved to have quite normal phonological short-term memory, suggesting that overt articulation is not necessary for rehearsal. Similar results have subsequently been obtained by Logie [269] and in a study by Bishop and Robson (1989) of congenitally anarthric children.
Another extensive series of experiments by Logie and Baddeley has explored the role of the articulatory loop in counting, suggesting that subvocalization is necessary for accuracy, even in well-practised adults [217]. Work has continued on the disruption by unattended sound of memory for visually presented material, in collaboration with Salame in Strasbourg. We have shown that disruption occurs from both vocal and instrumental music [232] but not from noise, regardless of loudness [231]. The disruption appears to be at the level of short-term storage, rather than perception [195], possibly having implications for the role of short-term phonological memory in speech perception.
A new development in the study of the functioning of the Articulatory Loop concerns its role in long-term phonological learning. Patients of the type described had until recently been assumed to show normal long-term learning. Baddeley, Papagno and Vallar have shown that an exception to this occurs when the new learning is phonological in nature, for example learning the vocabulary of a foreign language. Under these conditions we found a dramatic impairment in new learning [194]. We are currently exploring the role of this system in normal subjects by requiring them to learn foreign language vocabulary while suppressing subvocal rehearsal by articulating some irrelevant sound. Preliminary results are encouraging [228], suggesting that this system may be specialised for new verbal learning.
We further speculated that this short-term phonological system is crucial for a child's learning of its own native language. Evidence supporting this comes from a study by Gathercole and Baddeley of children who had been previously categorised as "language-disordered". We found that the most striking cognitive deficit shown by these children was in performing a task requiring them to hear and repeat back unfamiliar sequences of sounds, as in repeating a novel word. Eight-year-old language disordered children who had reading and vocabulary ages of six, performed this task at the level of four-year-olds [255].
Non-word repetition can plausibly be assumed to depend on temporary phonological storage, that is on the Articulatory Loop. We have been further exploring its capacity to predict language development in a longitudinal study of children who were tested on non-word repetition, reading and non-verbal intelligence on starting school aged four, and one and two years later. We find that non-word repetition is the best predictor of their vocabulary levels both initially and subsequently, and that non-word repetition capacity is also a reasonably good predictor of their reading score at age six. The principal investigator on this project, Susan Gathercole, has now moved to a Lectureship at Lancaster, and is continuing the project on an MRC project grant in which Baddeley is involved as a collaborator.
The concept of a Central Executive has been further developed [185], partially by adopting a model of attentional control devised by Norman and Shallice [33]. The model has the advantage of explaining some striking but hitherto puzzling results concerning the capacity for generating random sequences of items such as letters. This in turn suggests that random generation may provide both a useful measure of Central Executive capacity, and a suitable method of disrupting the functioning of the Executive. This was tested in two experiments carried out jointly with Robbins and students from the Psychology Department, concerned with the analysis of chess skill (Robbins et al., in preparation). The first study required average or expert players to remember chess positions while performing secondary tasks expected to disrupt the operation of the Articulatory Loop (articulatory suppression), the Sketchpad (spatial tapping) or the Central Executive (random generation). Both average and expert players showed the same pattern of no disruption from articulation, together with clear impairment in memory for positions that were seen and recalled during spatial or Central Executive processing. A second study used a similar method to study the choice of optimum move given a predetermined position, and found essentially similar results.
These findings are consistent with other research, funded through a collaboration with the University of Illinois, that has shown that dual task methodology based on the working memory paradigm can be used to tease apart the components of a complex skilled task; one instance is that of a complex computer game requiring many hours to master. Here, we found that the working memory approach gave a better analysis of the task than existing workload measures based on subjective estimates of task difficulty, or on single interfering tasks [218, 268].
65.2 Working Memory and Dementia (Baddeley)
Collaborative research with colleagues in Milan [233] and Pittsburgh has been concerned with the hypothesis that patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease show a particularly marked deficit in long-term learning and in the Central Executive component of working memory. The Central Executive deficit was tested by using a task in which patients and elderly and young controls were required to coordinate two tasks, one of the assumed primary functions of the Executive. Tasks were chosen so as to load on separate subcomponents of working memory, and to be adjustable so that the overall error rate was equivalent for our three groups. Hence in one critical condition subjects combined a visuo-spatial tracking task with concurrent immediate memory for digits. Despite the fact that the level of difficulty of the two tasks was adjusted across groups, the Alzheimer patients showed dramatic impairment in combining the two, whereas the normal elderly were no more impaired than the young [193]. In a subsequent longitudinal study, dual-task performance was shown to decline much more precipitously than performance on either of the constituent tasks.
A three-way NATO-funded collaboration between Milan, UK and Pittsburgh has further explored the hypothesis of a two-component deficit. Detailed analysis of individual cases suggests that although memory and Central Executive deficits are characteristic, substantial differences between patients occur. Whether this represents differences in the disease process itself, or differences in the inherent vulnerability of different patients is an important but as yet unresolved question.
65.3 The Neuropsychology of Auditory-Verbal Short-Term Memory (Shallice)
In a review paper [260] with Vallar, Shallice has shown that all patients so far described with a selective span deficit, and for whom word comprehension is preserved and articulation is relatively spared, are well characterised as having an impairment of the phonological input buffer within a multiple stores/working memory framework. With Butterworth and Watson [252] Shallice has shown for one STM patient that retrieval from the phonological buffer interacts with retrieval from a semantic trace; retrieval from the two systems is not independent as more traditional theorising would suggest.
Shallice has edited with Vallar [189] a book on all aspects of the short-term memory syndrome including its relation to models of normal short-term memory and of normal language comprehension.
65.4 Long-Term Learning and Memory Deficits (Baddeley, Emslie, R Green)
It has in recent years become increasingly clear that long-term memory does not reflect a unitary system, but rather a number of different subsystems. The most powerful evidence for this fractionation has come from neuropsychology, leading in turn to a more adequate understanding of the memory deficits shown, and a further development of diagnostic clinical tests.
A good example of this concerns the project started some years ago that was concerned with estimating the extent to which existing clinical tests were good indices of the memory problems patients encounter in their everyday life. It suggested that the relationship was in many cases rather poor, but further pointed out the limitations of questionnaire measures - some patients simply forget how bad their memory is. Work by Wilson at Rivermead Rehabilitation Centre in Oxford led to the development of the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (RBMT) which consists of a series of subtests, each comprising a model of some everyday memory task, such as remembering a new person's name, finding a route, or recognizing a face. The test was a logical extension of our own project, and we collaborated in developing and validating the test and collecting norms (supported by an MRC grant to Wilson). The test was validated against many hours of therapists' observations of memory lapses in brain damaged patients, and proved a valid and very acceptable clinical instrument which is now being widely used throughout the world [261, 241]. Norms for the elderly have just been completed, and a children's version is currently under development by Wilson, again funded by an MRC grant.
Further work concerned with the analysis of long-term memory deficits in patients showed that existing tests in clinical use are unlikely to detect deficits in autobiographical memory, the capacity of a patient to remember aspects of his or her earlier life. In one study we tested a range of patients using the technique of providing a cue word such as "river", and asking the patient to recollect an associated personal experience. This provided rich data, allowing us to subcategorize patients, and in particular highlighting the association between damage to the frontal lobes, defective operation of the Central Executive in working memory, and a tendency to confabulation [248]. The cue word method is however unsatisfactory in many ways, and in collaboration with Kopelman (then at the Institute of Psychiatry) and Wilson we devised a structured interview that probes the patient's recall of personal facts from various earlier periods of life (such as the names of teachers, the addresses lived in as a child) coupled with the capacity to recollect episodes that occurred during that stage of life. The autobiographical interview proved sensitive and easy to use, with the readily scorable autobiographical facts as good an indicator as the episodes [215]. A subsequent study by Dritschel, M Williams and Baddeley used a much larger sample of normal subjects has used cluster analysis to investigate the relationship between memory for personal events and memory for general semantic facts such as the names of Prime Ministers or animals [209]; results suggest that autobiographical and semantic memory reflect domains within a complex system rather than the output of separate modular systems.
It is often useful in assessing a brain damaged patient to have some indication of probable premorbid intelligence. At present there are relatively few ways of measuring this, and we have devised a further test that relies on the fact that the capacity to recognize whether a string of letters is a real word or not appears to be very resistant to brain damage. The Spot-the-Word test involves presenting subjects with pairs of items of which one is an invented non-word such as "strubbage" while the other is a real word. The words vary in frequency from the common such as "oasis" to the relatively obscure, e.g. "thole", and the subject is required to tick the real word. The test correlates very highly with other estimates of vocabulary, and is readily accepted by patients. General population norms have been collected by Emslie and Baddeley, and collaborative work is underway to validate it against a full WAIS intelligence scale. It has been used with elderly, depressed, demented and schizophrenic patients, and we plan to use these data further to explore its robustness to the effects of brain damage. We are however now reasonably confident that it will provide a useful brief estimate of premorbid intelligence, or indeed of current intelligence in normal subjects.
65.5 Memory and Schizophrenia (Baddeley)
The development of new tests such as the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test suggests the possibility of re-examining the memory function of patient groups. In collaboration with McKenna at Leeds, Baddeley has begun to study the memory performance of schizophrenic patients. Preliminary results are quite striking in suggesting that about a quarter of the patients studied show severe memory impairments, impairments that may be disproportionately greater than other cognitive deficits shown. A second notable feature of the study is the hetereogeneity of cognitive deficit shown in this group; as in the case of the previously-described Alzheimer patients, this raises the question of whether the variability stems from differences in the disease process, or differences in the underlying vulnerability of individual patients. We hope to explore the relationship between cognitive deficits and underlying neurological impairments, possibly using PET scanning. McKenna has now moved from Leeds to Fulbourn Hospital Cambridge, which should make collaboration logistically easier.
65.6 Connectionist Modelling of Memory (Houghton, Jackson)
Since arriving at the Unit the majority of Houghton's research has been in the area of computational modelling of psychological phenomena. The particular models he has been developing fall within the recently emergent "connectionist" paradigm. These models, though implemented on serial, digital computers, attempt to use processing modes inspired to a large degree by neurophysiological findings. They thus contrast both conceptually and computationally with the more familiar "symbol-manipulation" paradigm in which psychological processes are modelled as sequential, quasi-logical operations on structures built from alphabets of passive symbols.
The work falls into two main areas - (a) learning and recall of sequences (with particular emphasis on spoken language) and (b) "concept formation" using unsupervised learning algorithms. The major focus has been on the first of these two areas, though there is a certain amount of overlap due to the use of mathematically similar constructs in both areas.
65.6a Learning and Recall of Sequences. In the work on topic (a) Houghton has attempted to improve on previous connectionist models which deal with the problem of temporally (as opposed to spatially) patterned information. Temporal order is a serious problem for the connectionist approach because its basic theoretical vocabulary contains no ordered objects (such as lists), which the symbolic computational approach, for instance, takes for granted. The standard strategy in much previous work has actually been to avoid the problem by trying to recode temporally structured information (such as language) into a spatial form. Recall of a sequence in such models reduces to the recall of a spatial pattern, and the problem of converting this pattern into serial behaviour is ignored. (These models generally do not learn sequences either but have to be set up "by hand".) The model produced, called the Competitive Queuing model, learns sequences (in particular syllables, represented as strings of phonemes) by simple exposure and the use of a "Hebbian" weight change rule (intended to represent changes in synaptic connection strength between cells). Recall of the sequence is genuinely temporal, the sequence of elements appearing one after the other at output. Despite this, the initial activation of sequence elements occurs in parallel, up to a point. This is in accord with available evidence and the model represents a solution to the apparent paradox that groups of elements of a serially-ordered behaviour appear, at some level, to be accessed in parallel.
65.6b Concept Formation. A second project looks at the use of algorithms for the formation of "feature detectors" in neural networks, investigating the possibility of developing them in concept learning models. Another intriguing possibility is to develop "temporal" versions of these algorithms, which would then generate detectors for temporally, rather than spatially defined patterns. The work has developed to the stage of producing a model which (in the spatial version) is capable of simulating some features of categorical perception. This model can also perform unsupervised associative learning between two "conceptual maps". It can perform this learning in situations which appear to defeat at least the simplest of "supervised" learning rules (i.e. those which require an omniscient "teacher"). Preliminary work on a temporal version (using English syllables as input) produces a map of the input based on the temporal pattern with similar sounding syllables being represented at spatially adjacent locations in the map. This is consistent with data on the production of malapropisms. As well as offering explanations for such data, this work offers the possibility of seeing how the mental lexicon can spontaneously self-organise along phonological dimensions.
65.7 Modality and Memory (Conway, Gathercole)
65.7a Short-term memory. A series of experiments assessing the nature of differences between recall of recent auditory and visual events was carried out. In particular, investigations of the effects of post-list articulatory suppression showed that the auditory advantage at recency was eliminated by spoken suppression, but unimpaired by mouthed suppression. These results call into question current assumptions about the functional equivalence of acoustic and mouthed input conditions, and support instead a multi-component approach to recency effects [211].
65.7b Long-term memory. In research exploring long-term memory differences for material presented in different input activities, Conway and Gathercole established persistent memory advantages to acoustic over non-acoustic presentation conditions in incidental learning [208], and have shown that vocalization leads to better memory retention than passive listening [214]. In this paper it was also found that writing words read at input does not enhance memory performance. On this basis, they proposed that these modality differences in long-term memory reflect the distinctive nature of acoustic inputs, and effective use of self-generated retrieval cues of one's own voice in accessing representations of vocalised events.
This work is continuing at the University of Lancaster where Conway and Gathercole have been appointed to lectureships.
65.8 Memory for Faces (Valentine)
Face recognition is not only of considerable applied interest in itself, but also provides a good example of a visual object recognition task which can be readily studied in the laboratory.
The model of face recognition being tested is based on the assumption that the similarity between faces can be thought of as distances in a multi-dimensional space. In such a space faces would be normally distributed around the central tendency of the population of faces experienced. One possibility is that faces are encoded as differences from a prototypical face which represents the central tendency. Investigation of this model has centred on the effects of three factors: typicality, inversion and race; the initial results of experimental studies are extremely encouraging [235]. Simulations of neural networks have also been carried out to explore the basis of the prototype extraction process. This work is relevant to studies of concept learning and categorisation as well as face recognition.
The recognition of other-race faces is an important theoretical issue for the model because it provides a possibility of separating predictions of two different versions. A collaborative cross-cultural project with Endo of Hachinuo College, Japan is underway.
A project in collaboration with Bredart of the University of Liege, Belgium, concerns access to semantic information from peoples' names. Much of the recent theoretical progress that has been made in face recognition has resulted from a comparison between recognizing faces and words, but recognition of names has been comparatively neglected. This line of research will be continued by Valentine in Manchester where he has been appointed to a lectureship.
Project 66 - Naturalistic Studies of Human Memory
66.1 Autobiographical Memory
Research on the organization of autobiographical memory and the phenomenal characteristics of remembering has made use of converging operations, where different paradigms and behavioural measurements were employed, ranging from production frequency norms and priming studies, to subjective rating studies and spontaneous recall.
66.2 Organization of Autobiographical Memory (Bekerian, Conway)
Questions about the organization of autobiographical memory have focussed on how information about different experiences is integrated and unified: how are personal experiences organized or understood?
66.2a Bekerian and Conway have argued [250] that autobiographical memory consists of different levels of experience, ranging from molecular (e.g., recollecting the colour of someone's party dress) to molar (e.g., how long the party went on). The relationship between molar and molecular aspects of autobiographical memory was studied using a priming paradigm across a series of seven experimental studies [206]. Results supported the hypothesis that autobiographical memory is hierarchically organized. Very general or molar divisions of time in one's life (e.g., the time I went to secondary school) can serve as reference points around which other more specific autobiographical memories are organized. These results challenge existing theoretical models that rely on similarity of activities as the basis for autobiographical organization.
66.2b A second series of seven experiments by Conway and Bekerian [207] examined the organization of knowledge about emotions, as it relates to autobiographical memory. People expect to feel certain emotions when they are in certain situations (e.g., expect to feel happy at a wedding); but very little research has been done previously on these situational determinants of emotion. The experiments used production frequency norms and reaction time paradigms. Overall, the results suggested that knowledge about emotions is determined, in part, by knowledge about the situations under which they are expected. The results also identified different classes of situational information that contributed to knowledge of emotions. These classes varied not only in their specificity, but also in their relationship to single, autobiographical memories. It was hypothesized that knowledge about emotions was hierarchical, including semantic, situational and autobiographical information. However, it was also suggested that situational information is independently represented from autobiographical memories, a position which is contrary to other influential memory models.
66.3 Phenomenal Characteristics of Remembering (Bekerian, Dennett)
Research by Bekerian and Dennett has focussed on the vividness of an individual's memory, the quality and the clarity of recall. General issues have been to determine the basis for phenomenally vivid memories, and to assess the relationship between the phenomenal clarity of recall and its accuracy or "truthfulness". This work represents a departure from the more traditional work in autobiographical memory, as it stresses the importance of a multi-disciplinary approach.
66.3a Data from subjective ratings suggested that vivid memories were not, themselves, a homogenous class that could be distinguished from other, less vivid autobiographical memories [266]. The results were interpreted as suggesting that sub-classifications of different types of autobiographical memories should not be made purely on the basis of the phenomenal characteristics of recall.
66.3b Extensive examination of the quality of autobiographical recall was presented in a case study, where an individual was asked to recall a significant and consequential event, his criminal trial (see [264]). In a novel approach to the study of autobiographical memory, discourse analyses were used to determine the relative accuracy of the person's memory and also the qualitative features of memory, such as vividness and expressions of belief. Some significant predictions made from experimental work failed to find support in analyses of accuracy, e.g., personally significant information was not more accurately remembered than non-significant information. It was suggested that accuracy of memory can only be understood in light of the qualitative aspects of recall, which are influenced by the purposive nature of remembering and communicative and pragmatic conventions. This interpretation represents a return to a previous theoretical framework [258] which stresses the importance of the goal of remembering in determining the nature of autobiographical accounts. It is an approach which is finding considerable support in other fields, such as social cognition and discourse analysis.
66.4 Witness Cognition and Memory (Bekerian, Dennett)
Witness memory has developed into a major area of research, focussing primarily on retrieval factors: How do interview techniques influence a witness' accuracy? Which interview techniques are more effective in eliciting an accurate account? Which effective interview techniques can be applied to real-life situations? The work makes important contributions both to a theoretical understanding of witness memory [258] and to applied issues such as the needs of real-life interviewers.
66.4a Considerable theoretical discussion has been given to the "misleading" effects of post-event information [258]: witnesses can be misled by erroneous information given to them after they have seen an event. The theoretical account has been one which has stressed the importance of the retrieval environment in overcoming misleading effects. Complementary work has been done to determine whether the basis for misleading effects are visua 1-perceptual or verbal-thematic [263]. The results showed that witnesses encouraged to view the event with additional imagery instructions were more affected by misleading information. The results call into question the assumption that imagery will facilitate a witness' recall of an event, and challenge the use of imagery in the interviewing of real witnesses.
66.4b Interest in the effectiveness of interview techniques has been examined, with the intent to use techniques that could, in principle, apply to real-life interviews [201]. A simple manipulation involved asking some witnesses to write their accounts, whilst asking others to give spoken accounts. Systematic differences were found in the amount of correctly recalled information, with spoken accounts being superior.
66.5 Juror Memory and Cognition (Bekerian, Dennett)
The interest here, which developed as a logical extension of the work on witness memory, includes general questions about how jurors come to comprehend and judge evidence in the process of making verdict decisions. There has also been continued interest in examining techniques used for the presentation of evidence in court, with the aim to identify techniques which can improve jurors' comprehension and retention of evidence. Issues of evidential jurisprudence are always considered in this work. Thus, the relationship between the law and cognition is explicitly addressed.
66.5a One study examined how lay-jurors can be helped to understand complex evidence [274]. The study simulated some aspects of courtroom procedures and focussed on presentation techniques that could be used in a judge's final summing-up of evidence. It was found that reinstating the order in which evidence had been originally presented facilitated not only comprehension but also memory for highly complex evidence. The study was part of a contract with the Roskill Fraud Trials Committee. Suggestions were made as to how highly complex evidence might be best presented in fraud cases.
66.5b Another study has looked at the relationship between memory for evidence and verdict decision using simulated jury conditions [294]. Although the dominant explanation of verdict decisions is that they are determined by how well a juror understands and remembers case evidence (that is, a juror who remembers more about the prosecution case will be likely to reach a guilty verdict), the data showed no biases in memory which could usefully discriminate between jurors returning different verdicts. In other words, what a juror remembered could not be used to predict that juror's verdict.
REFERENCES
Al - Authored Books
185. BADDELEY, A.D. (1986) Working Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
186. BADDELEY, A.D. Human Memory: Theory and Practice. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press.
187. CONWAY, M.A. Autobiographical Memory: An Introduction. Milton Keynes: Open University, in press.
A2 - Edited Books
188. BADDELEY, A.D. and Bernsen, N.O. (Eds.) (1989) Research Directions in Cognitive Science: A European Perspective, Vol. 1: Cognitive Psychology, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
189. Vallar, G. and SHALLICE, T. (Eds.), Neuropsychological Impairments of Short-Term Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press.
B - Refereed Journal Articles
190. BADDELEY, A.D. (1986) Editorial: Modularity, mass-action and memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38A, 527-533.
191. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Cognitive psychology and human memory. Trends in Neurosciences, (Special Issue - Learning and Memory), 11, 176-181.
192. BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Some reflections on visual imagery. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 1, 333-335.
193. BADDELEY, A., LOGIE, R., Bressi, S., Delia Sala, S. and Spinnler, H. (1986) Dementia and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38A, 603-618.
194. BADDELEY, A.D., Papagno, C. and Vallar, G. (1988) When long-term learning depends on short-term storage. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 586-595.
195. BADDELEY, A.D. and Salame, P. (1986) The unattended speech effect: Perception or memory? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 12, 525-529.
196. BADDELEY, A.D. and Tomkins, F. Dyspraxia and the phonological loop. (Manuscript in preparation).
197. BADDELEY, A.D., Vallar, G., and Wilson, B. (1987) Sentence comprehension and phonological memory: Some neuropsychological evidence. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and Performance XII: The Psychology of Reading. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.509-529.
198. BADDELEY, A.D. and Wilson, B. (1985) Phonological coding and short-term memory in patients without speech. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 490-502.
199. BADDELEY, A.D. and Wilson, B. (1988) Comprehension and working memory: A single case neuropsychological study. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 479-498.
200. BEKERIAN, D.A. (1986) Similarity of internal learning environments and retroactive inhibition. American Journal of Psychology, 99, 45-55.
201. BEKERIAN, D.A. and DENNETT, J.L. Spoken and written recall of visual narratives. Applied Cognitive Psychology, in press.
202. Broadbent, D.E. and GATHERCOLE, S.E. The processing of nontarget words: Semantic or not? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, in press.
203. Bruce, V., VALENTINE, T. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) The basis of the 3/4 view advantage in face recognition. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 1,109-120.
204. Cockburn, J., Wilson, B., BADDELEY, A.D. and Hiorns, R. Assessing everyday memory in patients with perceptual deficits. Clinical Rehabilitation, in press.
205. CONWAY, M.A. (1987) Verifying autobiographical facts. Cognition, 26, 39-58.
206. CONWAY, M.A. and BEKERIAN, D.A. (1987) Organization in autobiographical memory. Memory and Cognition, 15, 119-132.
207. CONWAY, M.A. and BEKERIAN, D.A. (1987) Situational knowledge and emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 1, 145-191.
208. CONWAY, M.A. and GATHERCOLE, S. (1987) Modality and long-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 341-361.
209. DRITSCHEL, B., WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and BADDELEY, A.D. Autobiographical fluency: A method for the study of personal memory. (Manuscript submitted).
210. Friedman, W.J. and WILKINS, A.J. (1985) Scale effects in memory for the time of events. Memory and Cognition, 13, 168-175.
211. GATHERCOLE, S. (1986) The modality effect and articulation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38A, 461-474.
212. GATHERCOLE, S. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 200-213.
213. GATHERCOLE, S. and BADDELEY, A. Phonological memory deficits in language-disordered children: Is there a causal connection? Journal of Memory and Language, in press.
214. GATHERCOLE, S.E. and CONWAY, M.A. (1988) Exploring long-term modality effects: Vocalization leads to best retention. Memory and Cognition, 16, 110-119.
215. Kopelman, M.D., Wilson, B.A. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) The autobiographical memory interview: A new assessment of autobiographical and personal semantic memory in amnesic patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11, 724-744.
216. LOGIE, R.H. (1986) Visuo-spatial processing in working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38A, 229-247.
217. LOGIE, R.H. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Cognitive processes in counting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13,310-326.
218. LOGIE, R.H., BADDELEY, A.D., Mane, A., Donchin, E. and Sheptak, R. (1989) Working memory in the acquisition of complex cognitive skills. Acta Psychologica, 71, 53-87.
219. LOGIE, R.H., BADDELEY, A.D. and WOODHEAD, M.M. (1987) Face recognition, pose and ecological validity. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 1, 53-69.
220. Logie, R.H., Zucco, G.M. and BADDELEY, A.D. Interference with visual short-term memory. Acta Psychologica, in press.
221. Mayes, A.R., BADDELEY, A.D., Cockburn, J., Meudell, P.R., Pickering, A. and Wilson, B. (1988) Why are amnesic judgements of recency and frequency made in a qualitatively different way from those of normal people? Cortex, 25, 479-488.
222. MINGAY, D. (1985/86) Hypnosis and memory for incidentally learned scenes. British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 3, 173-183.
223. MINGAY, D. (1987) The effect of hypnosis on eyewitness memory: Reconciling forensic claims and research findings. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 36, 163-183.
224. MORRIS, R.G. (1986) Short-term forgetting in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 3, 77-97.
225. MORRIS, R.G. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Primary and working memory functioning in Alzheimer-type dementia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 10, 279-296.
226. Morton, J., Hammersley, R.H. and BEKERIAN, D.A. (1985) Headed records: A model of memory and its failures. Cognition, 20, 1-23.
227. Nickerson, R.S., BADDELEY, A.D. and Freeman, B. (1987) Are people's estimates of what other people know influenced by what they themselves know? Acta Psychologica, 64, 245-259.
228. Papagno, C., BADDELEY, A.D. and VALENTINE, T. (1989) Memoria fonologica a breve termine e apprendimento verbale. Archivo di Psicologia Neurologia e Psichiatria, 3, 542-557.
229. Rubin, D.C. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Telescoping is not time compression: A model of the dating of autobiographical events. Memory and Cognition, 17, 653-661.
230. Salame, P. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1986) Phonological factors in STM: Similarity and the unattended speech effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 24, 263-265.
231. Salame, P. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Noise, unattended speech and short-term memory. Ergonomics, 30, 1185-1194.
232. Salame, P. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Effects of background music on phonological short-term memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41 A, 107-122.
233. Spinnler, H., Delia Sala, S., Bandera, R. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Dementia, ageing and the structure of human memory. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 5, 193-211.
234. SUNDERLAND, A., WATTS, K., BADDELEY, A.D. and HARRIS, J.E. (1986) Subjective memory assessment and test performance in elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 41, 376-384.
235. VALENTINE, T. (1988) Upside-down faces: A review of the effect of inversion upon face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 79, 471-491.
236. Vallar, G. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Phonological short-term store and sentence processing. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 4, 417-438.
237. Vallar, G. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Developmental disorders of verbal short-term memory and their relation to sentence comprehension: A reply to Howard and Butterworth. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 6, 465-473.
238. Wilkins, A.J. (1986) Remembering to do things in the laboratory and everyday life. Acta Neurologica Scandanavia, 74, (suppl.109), 109-112.
239. Wilson, B. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory in a postmeningitic amnesic patient. Brain and Cognition, 8, 31-46.
240. Wilson, B.A., BADDELEY, A.D. and Cockburn, J.M. (1989) How do old dogs learn new tricks: Teaching a technological skill to brain injured people. Cortex, 25,115-119.
241. Wilson, B., Cockburn, J., BADDELEY, A.D. and Hiorns, R. (1989) The development and validation of a test battery for detecting and monitoring everyday memory problems. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 2, 855-870.
C - Invited Chapters and Commentaries
242. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) But what the hell is it for? In M.M. Gruneberg, P. Morris and R.N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 1: Memory in Everyday Life. Chichester: John Wiley, pp.3-18.
243. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Citation Classic - The Psychology of Memory (New York: Basic Books, 1976). Current Contents, 20, 11-12.
244. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) The uses of working memory. In P.R. Solomon, G.R. Goethals, CM. Kelley and B.R. Stephens (Eds.), Memory: Interdisciplinary Approaches. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp.107-123.
245. BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Finding the bloody horse. In L.W. Poon, D.C Rubin and B.A. Wilson (Eds.), Everyday Cognition in Adulthood and Late Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.104-115.
246. BADDELEY, A.D. The development of the concept of working memory: Implications and contributions of neuropsychology. In G. Vallar and T. Shallice (Eds.), Neuropsychological Impairments of Short-Term Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press.
247. BADDELEY, A.D., HARRIS, J., SUNDERLAND, A., WATTS, K. and Wilson, B. (1987) Closed Head Injury and Memory. In H.S. Levin, J. Graf man and H.M. Eisenberg (Eds.), Neurobehavioral Recovery from Head Injury. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.295-317.
248. BADDELEY, A.D. and Wilson, B. (1986) Amnesia, autobiographical memory and confabulation. In D.C. Rubin (Ed.), Autobiographical Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.225-252.
249. BARNARD, P.J. (1985) Interacting cognitive subsystems: A psycholinguistic approach to short-term memory. In A. Ellis (Ed.), Progress in the Psychology of Language, Vol. 2. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 197-258.
250. BEKERIAN, D.A. and CONWAY, M. (1988) Everyday contexts. In G.M. Davies and D.M. Thomson (Eds.), Memory in Context: Context in Memory. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd., pp.305-318.
251. BURGESS, P.W. and Wood, R.LI. The neuropsychology of behaviour disorders following brain injury. In R.LI. Wood and P. Eames (Eds.), Neurobehavioural Sequalae of Traumatic Brain Injury. Edinburgh: Taylor and Francis, in press.
252. Butterworth, B., SHALLICE, T. and WATSON, F. Short-term retention without short-term memory. In G. Vallar and T. Shallice (Eds.), Neuropsychological Impairments of Short-Term Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press.
253. GATHERCOLE, S. (1987) Lipreading: Implications for theories of short-term memory. In B. Dodd and R. Campbell (Eds.), Hearing by Eye: The Psychology of Lipreading. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.227-241.
254. GATHERCOLE, S.E. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) The processes underlying segmental analysis. CPC: Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 462-464.
255. GATHERCOLE, S. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) The role of phonological memory in normal and disordered language development. In C. von Euler, I. Lundberg and G. Lennerstrand (Eds.), Brain and Reading. London: Macmillan Press, pp.245-255.
256. LOGIE, R.H. and BADDELEY, A.D. Imagery and working memory. In J. Richardson, D. Marks and P. Hampson (Eds.), Imagery: Current Developments. Routledge and Kegan Paul, in press.
257. MORRIS, R.G. (1985) Automated clinical assessment. In F.N. Watts (Ed.), New Developments in Clinical Psychology. Leicester: British Psychological Society, pp. 121-138.
258. Morton, J. and BEKERIAN, D.A. (1986) Three ways of looking at memory. In N. Sharkey (Ed.), Advances in Cognitive Science, I. Chichester: Ellis-Horwood, pp.43-71.
259. Phillips, W.A. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Learning and memory. In A.D. Baddeley and N.O. Bernsen (Eds.), Research Directions in Cognitive Science: A European Perspective, Vol. 1: Cognitive Psychology. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.61-83.
260. SHALLICE, T. and Vallar, G. The impairment of auditory-verbal short-term storage. In G. Vallar and T. Shallice (Eds.), Neuropsychological Impairments of Short-Term Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press.
261. Wilson, B., Cockburn, J. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Assessment of everyday memory functioning following severe brain injury. In M.E. Miner and K.A. Wagner (Eds.), Neurotrauma: Treatment, Rehabilitation, and Related Issues. Stoneham, MA: Butterworths, pp. 83-99.
D - Conference Proceedings
262. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Imagery and working memory. In M. Denis, J. Engelkamp and J.T.E. Richardson (Eds.), Cognitive and NeuropsychologicaI Approaches to Mental Imagery. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp.169-180.
263. BEKERIAN, D.A., CONWAY, M. and MINGAY, D.J. (1986) Imagining and being misled: When imagery does not aid memory. In D.G. Russell, D.F. Marks and J.T.E. Richardson (Eds.), Imagery 2 (Proceedings of the 2nd International Imagery Conference, Swansea, 1985). Dunedin, New Zealand: Human Performance Associates, pp.52-56.
264. BEKERIAN, D.A. and DENNETT, J.L. (1988) Memory on trial. In M.M. Gruneberg, P. Morris and R.N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 1: Memory in Everyday Life. Chichester: John Wiley, pp.95-99.
265. CONWAY, M.A. (1988) Images in autobiographical memory. In M. Denis, J. Engelkamp and J.T.E. Richardson (Eds.), Cognitive and NeuropsychologicaI Approaches to Mental Imagery. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp.337-345.
266. CONWAY, M.A. and BEKERIAN, D.A. (1988) Characteristics of vivid memories. In M.M. Gruneberg, P. Morris and R.N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 1: Memory in Everyday Life. Chichester: John Wiley, pp.519-524.
267. JACKSON, S. (1989) Individual differences in the revision of an abstract knowledge structure. In E.E. Smith and G. Olson (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th Cognitive Science Society Meeting (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 16-19 Aug, 1989). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.675-682.
268. LOGIE, R.H., BADDELEY, A.D., Mane, A., Donchin, E. and Sheptak, R. (1988) Visual working memory in the acquisition of complex cognitive skills. In M. Denis, J. Engelkamp and J.T.E. Richardson (Eds.), Cognitive and NeuropsychologicaI Approaches to Mental Imagery. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp.191-201.
269. LOGIE, R., Cubelli, R. Delia Sala, S., Alberoni, M. and Nichelli, P. Anarthria and verbal short-term memory. In J. Crawford and D.M. Parker (Eds.), Developments in Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, Plenum Press, in press.
270. MINGAY, D.J. (1986) Predicting recognition memory from imagery reports. In D.G. Russell, D.F. Marks and J.T.E. Richardson (Eds.), Imagery 2. Proceedings of the 2nd International Imagery Conference. Swansea, April 1985. Dunedin, New Zealand: Human Performance Associates, pp.92-95.
271. Rolfe, J. and BEKERIAN, D.A. (1985) Witnesses. In Proceedings of 1SASI Conference, FORUM, 17, 18-20.
272. WILKINS, A.J. (1986) Remembering to do things in the laboratory and everyday life. Acta Neurologica Scandanavia, 74, (Suppl.109) (Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Memory Function), 109-112.
273. Wilson, B.A., BADDELEY, A.D. and Cockburn, J. (1988) Trials, tribulations and triumphs in the development of a test of everyday memory. In M.M. Gruneberg, P. Morris and R.N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 2: Clinical and Educational Implications. Chichester: John Wiley, pp.249-254.
E - Technical Reports, Theses and Tests
274. BEKERIAN, D.A., CONWAY, M.J. and DENNETT, J.L. (1986) Improving juror understanding and memory for evidence by pre and post evidence summaries. In Improving the Presentation of Information to Juries in Fraud Trials, Report to Lord Roskill Committee on Fraud Trials, London: H.M.S.O., pp.53-63.
275. BOWERS, J. (1986) Schema theory and memory. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.
276. ELLIS, J.A. (1988) Memory for naturally-occurring intentions. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.
277. LOGIE, R.H., DUNCAN, J. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1986) Difficulties with comprehension, memory and concentration in listening to complex information. In Improving the Presentation of Information to Juries in Fraud Trials, Report to Lord Roskill Committee on Fraud Trials, London: H.M.S.O., pp.41-51.
278. MINGAY, D. (1986) Memory for eyewitness materials. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.
279. MORRIS, R.G. (1985) Short-term and working memory in senile dementia. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.
280. SCHREINER, K.L. (1987) Effects of autobiographical remembering in the repetition priming of visual word identification. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.
281. Wilson, B.A., Cockburn, J. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1985) The Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test. Obtainable from Thames Valley Test Company, 34/36 High Street, Titchfield, Fareham, Hampshire P014 4AF, England.
F - Dissemination
282. BADDELEY, A.D. (1985) Domains of recollection. In A.M. Aitkenhead and J.M. Slack (Eds.), Issues of Cognitive Modelling (Open University Set Book). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.209-227. (See also APU/1465-82)
283. BADDELEY, A.D. Memory. (1985) In A. Kuper and J. Kuper (Eds.), The Social Science Encyclopaedia. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp.514-515.
284. BADDELEY, A.D. (1986) What amnesics can and can not do. In K. Poeck, H.J. Freund and H. Ganshirt (Eds.), Neurology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp.204-211.
285. BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Amnesia. In R.L. Gregory (Ed.), Oxford Companion to the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.20-22.
286. BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Memory and context. In R.L. Gregory (Ed.), Oxford Companion to the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.463-464.
287. BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Memory for skills. In R.L. Gregory (Ed.), Oxford Companion to the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.716-717.
288. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Measuring memory. In I. Hindmarch and H. Ott (Eds.), Benzodiazepine Receptor Ligands, Memory and Information Processing. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp. 12-22.
289. BADDELEY, A.D. (1988) Memo ire: 1'apport de la psychologie. Science et Vie: Le Cerveau et la Memoire, 162, 134-141.
290. BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Hierarchies and human memory. In C. Kennard and M. Swash (Eds.), Hierarchies in Neurology: A Reappraisal of a Jacksonian Concept. London: Springer-Verlag, pp.49-54.
291. BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) Cognitive psychology and cognitive science. In A.D. Baddeley and N.O. Bernsen (Eds.), Research Directions in Cognitive Science: A European Perspective, Vol. 1: Cognitive Psychology. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.1-8.
292. BADDELEY, A.D. (1989) The psychology of remembering and forgetting. In T. Butler (Ed.), Memory (Wolfson College Lectures, 1988). Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp.33-60.
293. BADDELEY, A.D. and Robbins, T. (1988) The problem of memory. In N. Calder and J. Newell (Eds.), Future Earth - Exploring the Frontiers of Science. London: Christopher Helm, pp.189-198.
294. BEKERIAN, D.A. and DENNETT, J.L. (1988) Verdict decision and the retention of information. In P.J. Van Koppen, D.J. Hessing and G. Van Den Heuvel (Eds.), Lawyers on Psychology and Psychologists on Law. Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger B.V., pp.159-166.
295. BEKERIAN, D.A. and Rolfe, J. (1985) The eyewitness as an information source. In T. Ferry (Ed.), New Directions in Safety. USC Los Angeles, CA: American Society of Safety Engineers, pp.216-229.
Other sections in the 1985-1989 report
3. LANGUAGE, SPEECH, READING AND WRITING