You are in: Home » History of the Unit
COGNITION AND EMOTION
Project 79 - The Interaction of Emotion and Cognition
General Notes. This material has been scanned from the original typescript. While we have done our best to remove errors, some may well remain. You can access other parts of this particular Progress Report either from the menu at the bottom of this entry, by using your browser's back function, by navigating back to the Unit History Timeline, or by accessing the relevant section of the electronic archive. Reference for this report are indexed by number and these can be found in a dedicated section also accessible from the menu at the bottom of this entry.
The development of cognitive approaches to the analysis and treatment of emotional disorders by Beck and others represents one of the major recent achievements of applied psychology. However, this work was necessarily guided more by astute clinical observation and theorising than by the application of experimentally supported accounts of the interaction of cognition and emotion; little in the way of such accounts was available.
One response to the need for experimentally based models of cognition-emotion interaction has been to incorporate emotion into existing cognitive accounts with little modification of the overall framework. So, for example, in associative network theories of mood and memory, emotion is treated in much the same way as other representations. Although this approach has proved heuristic, its difficulties are now widely recognized, and the need for an adequate, experimentally supported framework within which to treat the interaction of cognition and emotion, and from which to derive improved applications, remains.
Johnson-Laird, with Oatley of Glasgow, has proposed a general account of the communicative function of the emotions within a cognitive science framework. Barnard has proposed Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) as a general-purpose cognitive framework for investigating and solving applied problems. Guided by converging findings from experimental investigations of mood congruent memory and stimulus-independent thought, Teasdale and Barnard have extended this framework to incorporate emotion. ICS provides novel ways for looking at the interactions of cognition and emotion, particularly as they affect the maintenance and modification of affective states, and these form the basis for proposals for future work. Future plans will therefore be described as a whole in one section, rather than following the summary of previous work under each separate sub-project.
79.1 A Communicative Theory of the Emotions (Johnson-Laird, with Oatley of Glasgow)
Johnson-Laird and Oatley have argued that emotions function as communications both within the internal architecture of the brain and amongst members of a social group [685, 679]. They are a more flexible way than "fixed action patterns", and a more rapid way than inferential processes, for preparing an organism to respond. The theory yields several empirical predictions, including the thesis that human emotions depend on the cognitive "modulation" of a small number of emotional modes. A detailed semantic analysis of 590 emotional words corroborated the theory which assumes that there are five basic emotions [716, 685].
79.2 Conceptual Representation of Emotion Terms (Conway, Bekerian)
In a series of studies mentioned earlier, Conway and Bekerian [207] found that emotion terms might be represented in knowledge structures which specify abstract featural knowledge, script knowledge and autobiographical memories of specific emotional experiences. Although different types of knowledge were differentially accessed by different tasks, it was also found that in certain tasks all emotion knowledge types were available for processing. In later studies developing this work, evidence was found to support the view that autobiographical memories might act as instances of emotion concepts and instantiate the emotion in specific processing episodes.
79.3 Mood Congruent Cognition (Dritschel, Teasdale)
Mood congruent cognition refers to the preferential retrieval or production of material congruent in hedonic tone with the prevailing mood state. Although this is now a well established phenomenon, it is by no means universal. Exploration of the boundary conditions under which mood congruence is obtained provides an opportunity to test and refine theories of its origins.
In a series of studies Teasdale and colleagues have identified the following boundary conditions. For both incidental recall of positive and negative words [686] and for completion of sentence stems [670], biasing effects of mood are greater for self-referred material. Work by Carr, Teasdale and Broadbent found that, within personality trait words, mood congruent retrieval is greater for words related to concepts that subjects use frequently. Mood congruent retrieval for the descriptions used to form images is reduced by inter-item associations between descriptions [689]. This last study also yielded one of the most interesting, and initially counterintuitive, findings. Mood congruence was less for descriptions which had led to images closely related to specific personal autobiographical events (these images were vivid, formed quickly, and did not evoke current feelings) than for images less related to actual specific personal experiences (these images were less vivid, formed more slowly, and evoked feelings as they were created). This finding was replicated both within- and between-subjects in two experiments. Considering this finding within the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems framework led to the proposal that mood congruent retrieval depends on initial encodings that involve high-order generic knowledge complexes related to affective themes. These can subsequently be reactivated by congruent mood states. Image production that requires elaboration from these complexes would, as found, tend to take longer, produce less vivid images, and be associated with production of congruent feeling. By contrast, the lack of mood congruence for descriptions yielding vivid images related to specific autobiographical events occurs because these image descriptions rapidly access records of actual events in perceptual memory, without the need for elaborative processing involving high-order knowledge complexes.
The above proposal provides an account of mood congruent memory that is consistent with the boundary conditions identified by Teasdale and by other workers, and that brings order into the apparent diversity of findings in the field of mood and memory.
79.4 Working Memory and Stimulus-Independent Thought (Baddeley, Dritschel, Proctor, Teasdale)
Beck's cognitive model of depression proposes that the stream of negative thoughts experienced by depressed patients contributes to the maintenance of their depressed state. Consistent with this view, Teasdale and colleagues found [674] that a distraction procedure that reduced the frequency of such thoughts in neurotically depressed patients alleviated their depression. Thoughts unrelated to immediate environmental input (stimulus-independent thoughts, SIT's) were particularly important in maintaining depression. In order to gain a clearer understanding of the cognitive processes supporting the production of SIT's, a series of six experiments within a working memory framework examined interference with the production of SIT's in normal subjects [690, 735]. These studies indicated that tasks interfered to the extent that they required continuous deployment of the control and co-ordinating resources of the central executive of working memory. Consistent with the view that these resources were necessary for the production of connected sequences of SIT's, in a random number generation task (where randomness has been assumed to depend on these same central resources), randomness was less when subjects were spontaneously producing SIT's than when they were not.
Within Barnard's Interacting Cognitive Subsystems framework [249], the central executive control function is instantiated principally by reciprocal interaction between the cognitive subsystem that deals with high-order generic knowledge complexes and the subsystem that deals with propositional knowledge. The finding that tasks interfere with SIT's to the extent that they require continuous deployment of central executive control and co-ordinating functions suggests that reciprocal interaction between these same two cognitive subsystems supports the production of connected sequences of SIT's. This suggestion, and its implications for the maintenance of affective states, are discussed in detail in the proposals for future work.
Practically, these experiments suggest that the effective suppression of unwanted SIT's in insomnia, worry, depression, etc. requires interventions that make continuous demands on central executive control resources. A treatment for insomnia developed by Levey conforms precisely to these requirements, and has been shown to be effective in a preliminary study. Levey and Watts propose to make a more formal evaluation of this treatment.
79.5 Development of a Comprehensive Conceptual Framework for Describing, Investigating and Modifying Cognitive-Affective Interactions (Barnard, Teasdale)
The field of cognitive-affective interaction lacks a conceptual framework that is both sufficiently comprehensive to guide understanding and treatment of patients and sufficiently detailed to guide research on underlying processes. Faced with a parallel situation in human-computer interaction, Barnard has developed Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) as a conceptual framework that is applicable yet potentially capable of formal modelling. ICS proposes a distributed cognitive architecture, with subsystems specialised for processing information in different codes [249]. The framework has recently been extended by Barnard and Teasdale to include emotion, feeling, and body state, and has been applied to the maintenance and modification of affective state and the effects of mood on cognition [669]. ICS has already provided a useful framework for understanding the results of investigations of mood congruent memory and of the process supporting the production of connected sequences of stimulus¬independent thought. It provides the theoretical rationale guiding proposals for future investigation of cognitive-affective interaction.
Project 80 - Analysis and Treatment of Emotional Disorders
At the time of the last Progress Report, the research on analysis and treatment of emotional disorders was at an early stage of development. At that time it was unclear which experimental paradigms and frameworks would prove to be most useful in the investigation of emotional disorders and what the tractable questions would be. The aim of the work over the last five years has been to lay the groundwork, to define the questions and to assess the extent to which clinical issues can be informed by cognitive models. As part of this exercise, Williams and Watts have collaborated with Mathews and MacLeod of St George's Hospital, London in writing a conceptual and empirical review of research applying cognitive psychology to emotional disorders [663].
The Unit's research has focussed on two ways in which emotion has been claimed to affect cognitive processing: (a) that it impairs general performance on a range of cognitive tasks; (b) that it biases information processing so that the person's perception and memory become dominated by information congruent with their current mood. When this program of research started, much of the evidence for these conclusions was derived either from analogue experiments on student subjects, or, where patients were used, based on subjective reports on their own performance by the patients themselves. The Unit's work in this area, by contrast, has focussed on clinically disturbed patients and people who have fears and anxieties of phobic proportions. It has assumed that successful intervention depends upon careful assessment of the extent to which a deficit or bias actually exists, and examination of what processes underlie it. The results of this application of experimental cognitive methodology to depression, to suicidal behaviour and to phobia are described below.
80.1 Concentration Problems and Memory Deficits in Clinical Depression (Bourke, Cooper, Coyle, Dalgleish, MacLeod, Watts)
80.1a Concentration problems. Previously Watts et al reported descriptive work on concentration problems in clinical depression. These are a source of severe distress to patients and prevent them re-engaging in potentially pleasurable activities. In the present period the relationship between subjective complaints and objective performance deficits has been examined [698].
The earlier work of Watts et al suggested a phenomenal distinction between concentration problems when patients' minds (a) "wandered" or (b) "went blank". They have now found that each is associated with different task performance deficits; mind wandering is associated with poor memory for prose under normal encoding conditions; blanking is associated with poor performance on a planning task, and also with poor recall under more effortful encoding conditions. It is suggested that blanking may be the phenomenal aspect of generalised inhibition of attention that occurs when depressed patients attempt effortful tasks.
80.1b Memory deficits. Research on memory problems in depression has focused on three questions: (i) whether the performance deficit can be explained in terms of response bias; (ii) what cognitive processes underlie the deficit, especially what kinds of material show the most severe deficit; and (iii) what remedial strategies are appropriate.
(i) Depression is associated with poor performance on free recall, but it is frequently suggested that this can be explained in terms of a conservative response strategy. Watts et al's study of recognition memory in depressed patients shows that this is not the case, as there are fewer 'hits' in depressed patients even when 'false alarms' are increased [700]. This provides the first clear evidence that depression affects d' in recognition memory.
(ii) Attempts to identify the processes underlying this deficit have been guided by the hypothesis that depressed patients are deficient in their structuring of material. For example, in a study of memory for prose, depressed patients did not show the normal bias towards recall of units central to the gist of the story. If, in depression, there is a pervasive failure for memory to be biased towards recall of important material, it could have serious consequences for adjustment. In contrast, a non-structural memorial variable such as imageability was found to operate normally in depressed patients [695].
(iii) These results suggest that the memory performance of depressed patients would be helped by the use of images, a memorial variable that is relatively unaffected by depression. Watts et al found that training in use of imagery produced substantial improvements in memory performance, especially in non-endogenous depression [697]. Another remedial approach would be to improve memorial processes that are affected by depression, and Watts has explored the feasibility of this with students with emotional disorders. This work has emphasised attention to the meaning and structure of material. This project has now been completed.
80.2 Analysis and Treatment of Cognitive Bias in Parasuicide (Dritschel, MacLeod, Proctor, Teasdale, M Williams)
The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating depression is well-established [730], and it is currently being extended to other emotional and behavioural disorders [751, 731]. However, there is one group of patients which presents particular difficulties - patients who repeatedly attempt suicide. Despite the scale of the problem (it is the most common reason for emergency admission to hospital in women and the second most common, after heart disease, in men), no psychological treatment has yet been found which reliably reduces the probability of a repeated attempt. The aim of this project is to understand the particular cognitive biases which exacerbate crises to suicidal proportions and, in future work, to study how such biases interact to bring about chronic hopelessness and schizotypal cognitive disorganisation.
The starting point for the research was the finding by Teasdale and colleagues of biased autobiographical memory in depressed mood. In Williams' early work, he found that suicidal patients had a similar memory bias, but also showed a more general deficit which had not previously been described: they had difficulty in focussing on specific events, responding instead with general memories (e.g. "going to parties"; "arguments with my boyfriend") [709]. Patients had particular difficulty in giving specific memories for positive events. Subsequent studies found that this difficulty in responding with specific memories was a reliable phenomenon, and occurred in patients who were able to perform normally on other cognitive tasks [707, 738].
There are a number of possible causes of this phenomenon. First, parasuicide patients may have a different cognitive style from other people. Second, their transient disturbed mood could be disrupting memory. Third, since these patients had undergone recent stressful events, these could be affecting memory quite apart from mood. In order to answer these questions, Williams and colleagues studied patients who were currently depressed but not suicidal [683, 714], and ex-patients who had taken an overdose some time previously but who had not had a recent life event [710]. These studies found (a) that depressed people who have no history of suicidal behaviour show a similar pattern of overgeneral memory to that shown by overdose patients, suggesting that the phenomenon is not peculiar to suicidal people; (b) that the extent of overgeneral recall does not correlate with the extent of mood disturbance, suggesting that transient mood is not itself a sufficient explanation of the phenomenon; (c) that ex-patients who have recovered from their suicidal crisis still show an overall difficulty in specific retrieval, suggesting a cognitive style of overgeneral encoding or retrieval which outlasts individual crises; (d) that these ex-patients were nevertheless relatively more specific in retrieving positive events than negative events suggesting that the presence or absence of a recent life event does play a role in the extent to which retrieval processes are disrupted.
80.3 Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression (Teasdale, Williams)
Based on his earlier investigations of the effects of mood on cognitive processing, Teasdale has developed a cognitive account of vulnerability to depression [687]. This proposes that individual differences in the nature of the cognitive constructs that become accessible in mildly depressed states represent an important factor determining whether such states remain mild and transient or become more severe and persistent. Studies using a self-referent incidental recall paradigm with community samples have supported predictions from this account both with respect to onset [688] and persistence [671] of depression, and an independent study in Oxford has produced further supportive evidence.
In parallel with this work, Williams has extended the cognitive vulnerability model to account for the way in which cognitive distortions interact with biological processes (especially circadian rhythms, [675]) in determining the course of depression and response to treatment in endogenous depressives. In a study in collaboration with Healy and Paykel of the University Department of Psychiatry, Williams and Teasdale examined the extent to which cognitive distortions predicted persistence of depression in endogenous depressives undergoing treatment. The self-referent incidental recall task failed to predict outcome, but a measure of dysfunctional attitudes taken when the patients were first admitted predicted outcome independent of initial severity, consistent with the cognitive vulnerability theory.
80.4 Cognitive Therapy of Depression and Anxiety (Teasdale, Williams)
Cognitive therapy, pioneered by A.T. Beck, aims to treat clinical states such as depression and anxiety by altering the maladaptive patterns of cognition that support them. Although no longer involved in direct clinical investigation of these treatments, Teasdale and Williams continue to be invited to review developments in outcome and process research [719, 721, 720, 728, 750, 729, 751, 753] and to provide consultation to other researchers in this field.
80.5 Processing of Emotional Stimuli in Spider Phobia (Bourke, Cooper, Coyle, Dalgleish, MacLeod, Watts)
During this period Watts et al have published work described in the previous progress report indicating that phobic stimuli recruit attentional resources. This is exemplified by retardation on the 'emotional Stroop' paradigm in which subjects are required to name the colour in which spider-related words are printed [699]. Colleagues have used the same paradigm in studying suicide attempters and worriers, and it has subsequently been used very extensively by researchers in other centres.
During the current period, Watts' research has focussed increasingly on the hypothesized poor processing of the stimulus features of phobic stimuli. The central claim is that anxiety interferes with the encoding of phobic stimulus features. This is held to have the following consequences: (a) memory for phobic stimuli will be poor, (b) cognitive representations of phobic stimuli will be relatively undifferentiated, and (c) emotional habituation to phobic stimuli will be limited, and the therapeutic benefit of exposure treatments thereby diminished.
(a) Phobics have poor recognition memory for spiders, a phenomenon that is due to reduced discriminability rather than response bias [705]. A similar phenomenon has been found with memory for phobic words; phobics show poor memory for spider stimulus words (compared to control subjects and control words). The effect is strongest in phobics in whom phobic anxiety is currently activated. Poor memory appears to be specific to stimulus words relating to spiders (e.g., hairy); in contrast memory for words relating to the anxiety response to spiders (e.g., frightened) is enhanced. The general conclusion is that phobic anxiety impedes the encoding of phobic stimulus features, a key point on which Watts' theoretical position differs from the related theory of Peter Lang [694].
(b) Watts et al had previously provided evidence that phobic representations are relatively undifferentiated by snowing that phobic constructs are more highly correlated in phobics than controls. In extending this work, with improved controls, it has been found that there are particularly strong correlations in phobics between typicality ratings and ratings of detailed stimulus features of the phobic object [737].
(c) In a study of desensitization Watts et al found that phobic representations are relatively unaffected, at least in the short-term, by desensitization treatment, whereas phobic attentional phenomena showed a rapid response [705]. Further work on desensitization is planned.
Work has also been undertaken to explore the implications of this line of work for clinical groups. Following the argument that good functional exposure is particularly important in the exposure treatment of agoraphobics, studies of attentional strategies in agoraphobics have been undertaken [693]. Preliminary work has also been undertaken on processing impairments in compulsive checkers, and their treatment implications.
REFERENCES
Al - Authored Books
663. WILLIAMS, J.M.G., WATTS, F.N., MacLeod, C. and Mathews, A. (1988) Cognitive Psychology and Emotional Disorders. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
A2 - Edited Books
664. Parry, G. and WATTS, F.N. (Eds.) (1989) Behaviour and Mental Health Research: A Handbook of Skills and Methods. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
665. Scott, J., WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and Beck, A.T. (Eds.) (1989) Cognitive Therapy in Clinical Practice: An Illustrative Casebook. London: Routledge.
666. WATTS, F.N. (Ed.) (1985) New Developments in Clinical Psychology. Leicester: British Psychological Society.
667. WATTS, F.N. (Ed.) (1988) New Developments in Clinical Psychology, Vol. 2. Leicester: British Psychological Society/Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
B - Refereed Journal Articles
668. BADDELEY, A.D. and IDZIKOWSKI, C. (1985) Anxiety, manual dexterity and diver performance. Ergonomics, 28, 1475-1482.
669. BARNARD, P. and TEASDALE, J.D. Interacting Cognitive Subsystems: A systemic approach to cognitive-affective interaction and change. Cognition and Emotion, in press.
670. Carr, S., TEASDALE, J.D. and Broadbent, D.E. Effect of induced elation and depression on self-focused attention. (Manuscript submitted).
671. Dent, J. and TEASDALE, J.D. (1988) Negative cognition and the persistence of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 29-34.
672. DRITSCHEL, B. and TEASDALE, J.D. Individual differences in affect-related cognitive operations elicited by experimental stimuli. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, in press.
673. Fennell, M.J.V. and TEASDALE, J.D. (1987) Cognitive therapy for depression: Individual differences and the process of change. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 253-271.
674. Fennell, M.J.V., TEASDALE, J.D., Jones, S. and Damle, A. (1987) Distraction in neurotic and endogenous depression: An investigation of negative thinking in major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 17, 441-452.
675. Healy, D. and WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1988) Dysrhythmia, dysphoria and depression: The interaction of learned helplessness and circadian dysrhythmia in the pathogenesis of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 103,163-178.
676. Healy, D. and WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1989) Moods, misattributions and mania: An interaction of biological and psychological factors in the pathogenesis of mania. Psychiatric Developments, 1, 49-70.
677. Hooley, J.M. and TEASDALE, J.D. (1989) Predictors of relapse in unipolar depressives: Expressed emotion, marital distress and perceived criticism. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 229-235.
678. IDZIKOWSKI, C. and BADDELEY, A.D. (1987) Fear and performance in novice parachutists. Ergonomics, 30, 1463-1474.
679. JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. and Oatley, K. (1988) Are there only two primitive emotions? A reply to Frijda. Cognition and Emotion, 2, 89-93.
680. JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. and Oatley, K. (1989) The language of emotions: An analysis of a semantic field. Cognition and Emotion, 3, 81-123.
681. LEVEY, A.B. and Martin, I. (1985) Behaviour therapy needs good behaviour theory. The Cognitive Behaviourist, 7, 13-15.
682. MCKENNA, F.P. (1986) Effects of unattended emotional stimuli on colour-naming performance. Current Psychological Research and Reviews, 5, 3-9.
683. MOORE, R.G., WATTS, F.N. and WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1988) The specificity of personal memories in depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 275-276.
684. NULTY, D.D., WILKINS, A.J. and WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1987) Mood, pattern sensitivity and headache: A longitudinal study. Psychological Medicine, 17, 705-713.
685. Oatley, K. and JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. (1987) Towards a cognitive theory of emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 1, 29-50.
686. Sutton, L.J., TEASDALE, J.D. and Broadbent, D.E. (1988) Negative self-schema: The effects of induced depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 188-190.
687. TEASDALE, J. (1988) Cognitive vulnerability to persistent depression. Cognition and Emotion, 2, 247-274.
688. TEASDALE, J.D. and Dent, J. (1987) Cognitive vulnerability to depression: An investigation of two hypotheses. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26,113-126.
689. TEASDALE, J.D. and DRITSCHEL, B. Mood congruent memory: When? How?. (Manuscript submitted).
690. TEASDALE, J.D., PROCTOR, L. and BADDELEY, A.D. Working memory and stimulus-independent thought: Daydreaming, depression, and distraction. (Manuscript submitted).
691. WATTS, F.N. (1985) Individual-centred cognitive counselling for study problems. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 13, 238-247.
692. WATTS, F.N. (1986) Cognitive processing in phobias. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 14, 295-301.
693. WATTS, F.N. (1989) Attentional strategies and agoraphobic anxiety. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 17, 15-26.
694. WATTS, F.N. and Blackstock, A. (1987) Lang's theory of emotional imagery. Cognition and Emotion, 1, 391-405.
695. WATTS, F.N. and Cooper, Z. (1989) The effects of depression on structural aspects of the recall of prose. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 150-153.
696. WATTS, F.N., Herbert, J., Moore, G.F. and LEVEY, A. (1986) Approaches to studying, personality and examination anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 243-245.
697. WATTS, F.N., MACLEOD, A.K. and MORRIS, L. (1988) A remedial strategy for memory and concentration problems in depressed patients. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12, 185-193.
698. WATTS, F.N., MACLEOD, A.K. and MORRIS, L. (1988) Associations between phenomenal and objective aspects of concentration problems in depressed patients. British Journal of Psychology, 79, 241-250.
699. WATTS, F.N., MCKENNA, F.P., SHARROCK, R. and Trezise, L. (1986) Colour naming of phobia-related words. British Journal of Psychology, 77,97-108.
700. WATTS, F.N., MORRIS, L. and MACLEOD, A.K. (1987) Recognition memory in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 273-275.
701. WAITS, F.N. and SHARROCK, R. (1985) Description and measurement of concentration problems in depressed patients. Psychological Medicine, 15, 317-326.
702. WATTS, F.N. and SHARROCK, R. (1985) Relationships between spider constructs in phobics. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 58, 149-153.
703. WATTS, F. and SHARROCK, R. (1987) Cued recall in depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 149-150.
704. WATTS, F.N., SHARROCK, R. and TREZISE, L. (1986) Detail and elaboration in phobic imagery. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 14, 115-123.
705. WATTS, F.N., TREZISE, L. and SHARROCK, R. (1986) Processing of phobic stimuli. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 25, 253-259.
706. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1985) Attributional formulation of depression as a diathesis-stress model: Metalsky et al reconsidered. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1572-1575.
707. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1986) Differences in reasons for taking overdoses in high and low hopelessness groups. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 59, 269-277.
708. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and BROADBENT, K. (1986) Autobiographical memory in suicide attempters. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 144-149.
709. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and BROADBENT, K. (1986) Distraction by emotional stimuli: Use of a Stroop task with suicide attempters. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 25, 101-110.
710. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and DRITSCHEL, B. (1988) Emotional disturbance and the specificity of autobiographical memory. Cognition and Emotion, 2, 221-234.
711. WILLIAMS, J.M.G., Healy, D., TEASDALE, J., White, W. and Paykel, E.S. Dysfunctional attitudes and vulnerability to persistent depression. Psychological Medicine, in press.
712. WILLIAMS, J.M.G., Lawton, C, Ellis, S., Walsh, S. and Reed, J. (1987) Copycat suicide attempts. The Lancet, 8550, 102-103.
713. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and NULTY, D.D. (1986) Construct accessibility, depression and the emotional Stroop task: Transient mood or stable structure? Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 485-491.
714. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and Scott, J. (1988) Autobiographical memory in depression. Psychological Medicine, 18, 689-695.
C - Invited Chapters and Commentaries
715. Good, D. and WATTS, F.N. (1989) Qualitative research. In G. Parry and F.N. Watts (Eds.), Behaviour and Mental Health Research: A Handbook of Skills and Methods. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.211-232.
716. JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. and Oatley, K. (1988) II significato delle emozioni: Una teoria cognitiva e un'analisi semantica. In V. d'Urso and R. Trentin (Eds.), Psicologia Delle Emozioni. Bologna: Societa Editrica il Mulino, pp.119-158.
717. LEVEY, A.B. and Martin, I. (1987) Evaluating conditioning: A case for hedonic transfer. In H.J. Eysenck and I. Martin (Eds.), Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy. New York: Plenum Press, pp.113-131.
718. LEVEY, A.B. and Martin, I. (1987) Knowledge, action, and control. In H.J. Eysenck and I. Martin (Eds.), Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy. New York: Plenum Press, pp.133-151.
719. TEASDALE, J.D. (1988) Cognitive models and treatments for panic: A critical evaluation. In S. Rachman and J.D. Maser (Eds.), Panic: Psychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.189-203.
720. TEASDALE, J. (1988) The impact of experimental research on clinical practice. In P.M.G. Emmelkamp, W.T.A.M. Everaerd, F. Kraaymaat and M.J.M. van Son (Eds.), Advances in Theory and Practice in Behaviour Therapy (Annual Series of European Research in Behaviour Therapy, Vol. 3). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets and Zeidinger, B.V., pp.1-18.
721. TEASDALE, J.D. Cognitive therapy for major depressive disorder: Current status. In B. Lerer and S. Gershon (Eds.), New Directions in Affective Disorders. New York: Springer-Verlag, in press.
722. WATTS, F.N. (1988) Agoraphobia: The changing face of treatment. In F.N. Watts (Ed.), New Developments in Clinical Psychology, Vol. 2. Leicester: British Psychological Society/Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, pp.53-66.
723. WATTS, F.N. (1989) Experimental abnormal psychology. In G. Parry and F. Watts (Eds.), Behaviour and Mental Health Research: A Handbook of Skills and Methods. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.139-161.
724. WATTS, F.N. and DALGLEISH, T. (1988) I disturbi emozionali. In V. d'Urso and R. Trentin (Eds.), Psicologia Delle Emozioni. Bologna: Societa Editrica il Mulino, pp.217-231.
725. WATTS, F.N. and Lavender, A. (1987) Rehabilitation: Investigation. In S. Lindsey and G.E. Powell (Eds.), Handbook of Clinical Adult Psychology. Aldershot: Gower Publishing Group, pp.420-432.
726. WATTS, F.N. and Lavender, A. (1987) Rehabilitation: Treatment. In S. Lindsey and G.E. Powell (Eds.), Handbook of Clinical Adult Psychology. Aldershot: Gower Publishing Group, pp.433-445.
727. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1985) Attempted suicide. In F.N. Watts (Ed.), New Developments in Clinical Psychology. Leicester: British Psychological Society, pp.188-202.
728. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1986) Social skills training and depression. In C.R. Hollin and P. Trower (Eds.), Handbook of Social Skills Training. Pergamon Press, pp.91-110.
729. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1987) Cognitive treatment of depression. In H.J. Eysenck and I. Martin (Eds.), Theoretical Foundations of Behaviour Therapy. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, pp.257-275.
730. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1989) Cognitive treatment for depression. In K.R. Herbst and E.S. Paykel (Eds.), Depression: An Integrative Approach. Oxford: Heinemann Medical Books, pp.163-178.
731. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and Moorey, S. (1989) The wider application of cognitive therapy: The end of the beginning. In J. Scott, J.M.G. Williams and A.T. Beck (Eds.), Cognitive Therapy in Clinical Practice: An Illustrative Casebook. London: Routledge, pp.227-250.
732. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. and Wells, J. (1989) Suicidal patients. In J. Scott, J.M.G. Williams and A.T. Beck (Eds.), Cognitive Therapy in Clinical Practice: An Illustrative Casebook. London: Routledge, pp.206-226.
D - Conference Proceedings
733. LEVEY, A.B., Martin, I., Blizard, R. and Cobb, M. (1985) A psychophysical model of psychophysiological disorder. In D. Papakostopoulos, S. Butler and I. Martin (Eds.), Clinical and Experimental Psychophysiology. London: Croom Helm, pp.420-447.
734. LEVEY, A.B., Martin, I.D., Blizard, R. and Cobb, M. (1985) Extinction failure in classical conditioning as a mechanism of psychosomatic illness. In P. Pichot, P. Berner, R. Wolfe and K. Thau (Eds.), Psychiatry, The State of the Art. Proceedings of the VII World Congress of Psychiatry, Vol. 2, Biological Psychiatry, Higher Nervous Activity. New York: Plenum Press, pp.871-877.
735. TEASDALE, J.D. (1989) Daydreaming, depression and distraction. The Psychologist, 2, 189-190.
736. WATTS, F.N. (1988) Memory deficit in depression: The role of response style. In M.M. Gruneberg, P. Morris and R.N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 2: Clinical and Educational Implications. Chichester: John Wiley, pp.255-260.
737. WATTS, F.N. The cohesiveness of phobic concepts. In K.J. Gilhooly, M. Keane, R.H. Logie and G. Erdos (Eds.), Lines of Thinking. Reflections on the Psychology of Thought. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, in press.
738. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1988) General and specific autobiographical memory and emotional disturbance. In M.M. Gruneberg, P. Morris and R.N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 1: Memory in Everyday Life. Chichester: John Wiley, pp.295-300.
E - Technical Reports, Theses and Tests
739. MACLEOD, A.K. (1989) Anxiety and judgements of future personal events. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
740. MOORE, R.G. (1987) Cognitive processing of social support in depression. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.
741. WATTS, F.N. (1989) The efficacy of clinical applications of psychology: An overview. Report to the Management Advisory Service to the NHS.
742. WILLIAMS, J.M.G., Lawton, C, Ellis, S., Walsh, S. and Reed, J. (1987) Imitative Parasuicide by Overdose. Report to Independent Broadcasting Authority, July.
F - Dissemination
743. WATTS, F.N. (1985) Clinical psychology. Health Trends, 17, 28-31.
744. WATTS, F.N. (1985) Listening processes in psychotherapy. Directions in Psychiatry, 5,1-7.
745. WATTS, F.N. (1986) Butterflies can lift your chances of passing well. Sesame, Oct/Nov, (109), p.6.
746. WATTS, F.N. (1986) Listening to the client. Changes? The psychology and psychotherapy journal), 4,164-167.
747. WATTS, F.N. (1988) Psychological contributions to the treatment of medical patients. In T.W. Robbins and P.J. Cooper (Eds.), Psychology for Medicine. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., pp.283-302.
748. WATTS, F.N. (1988) Un enfoque interaccionista de la rehabilitacion y adaptacion social. In J. Augustin Ozamiz (Ed.), Psico-Socialogia de la Salud Mental. San Sebastian: Ttartalo, S.A., pp.311-335.
749. WATTS, F.N. (1989) Listening processes in psychotherapy. In F. Flach (Ed.), Psychotherapy: Directions in Psychiatry Monograph Series 5. London: W.W. Norton and Co., pp. 114-124.
750. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1985) Cognitive therapy for depression: Practical, theoretical and experimental aspects. Japanese Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (Special Issue), 14, 927-938.
751. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1988) Cognitive therapy and anxiety disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 1, 299-303.
752. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. (1988) Psychological models of psychopathology. In T.W. Robbins and P.J. Cooper (Eds.), Psychology for Medicine. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., pp.241-261.
753. WILLIAMS, J.M.G. Overcoming depression. In G.D. Wilson (Ed.), The Book of Personality and Emotional Weil-Being. Oxford: Andromeda, in press.
Other sections in the 1985-1989 report
3. LANGUAGE, SPEECH, READING AND WRITING