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HPR 39 1994
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Organisation of this report ii
Obtaining reprints ii
Computer Notes ii
E-mail ii
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY UNIT, CAMBRIDGE
Staff iii
Abstracts 1
TOPIC INDEX to all abstracts 100
Organisation of Abstracts and Topic Index
The 1994 Human Performance Reports covers work from the MRC Applied Psychology Unit only. From this year we will depart from previous practice by publishing each year's list around Easter of the following year. The abstracts of completed work are arranged in alphabetical order by first author. In the case of multiple authorship, authors after the first are cross-referenced provided that they are members (or recent former members) of the APU, Cambridge. In the listings, names of MRC authors are denoted in capital letters, whereas names of authors from other research institutions are given in lower-case print. A Topic Index covering all abstracts appears at the end of the reports.
Obtaining Reprints
Readers interested in obtaining papers should write directly to the author who may be able to provide a reprint or preprint. In requesting reprints, please quote the alphanumeric code number which appears at the top right-hand corner of each abstract, as well as the title of the paper.
Computer Notes
The Applied Psychology Unit operates an anonymous FTP service in order to make work carried out by the Unit available to interested parties. This service can be reached at:
ftp.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk
Login as "anonymous" and give your e-mail address as the password. The directory 'pub' carries all currently available documents/software. This version of the HPR can be retrieved from the 'hpr' directory.
Should you wish to contact any person at the APU you can do so by addressing them as Firstname.Lastname e.g.
firstname.lastname@mrc-cbu.ac.uk
Should you have any queries about contacting people electronically or any other computer-related topic you should send mail to:
postmaster@mrc-cbu.ac.uk
MRC Applied Psychology Unit 15 Chaucer Road Cambridge CB2 2EF England
Telephone No: (01223) 355294 Fax No: (01223) 359062
DIRECTOR:Alan Baddeley, PhD, FRS
ASSISTANT DIRECTORS: Philip Barnard, PhD
Alan Wing, PhD
SCIENTIFIC STAFF
Michael Allerhand, PhD Elizabeth Maylor, PhD Jackie Andrade, PhD Jaap Murre, PhD Debra Bekerian, PhD Ian Nimmo-Smith, PhD Dorothy Bishop, DPhil Dennis Norris, DPhil Ann Blandford, PhD Mike Page, PhD Bob Carlyon, PhD Karalyn Patterson, PhD Peter Chapman, PhD Roy Patterson, PhD Anne Cutler, PhD Ian Robertson, PhD John Duncan, DPhil Abigail Sellen, PhD Hazel Emslie, PhD Daniel Sturdy, PhD Susan Goodrich, PhD John Teasdale, PhD Duncan Godden, PhD James Tresilian, PhD Thomas Green, PhD Robert Ward, PhD John Groeger, PhD Fraser Watts, PhD Andrew Howes, PhD Arnold Wilkins, DPhil Nilli Lavie, PhD Barbara Wilson, PhD Anthony Marcel, PhD Patricia Wright, PhD Andrew Mathews, PhD Andy Young, DSc Jon May, PhD Richard Young, PhD
RESEARCH SUPPORT STAFF
Sue Allison, BA Rebecca Jeanes, BSc Bartholomew Baddeley Ann Lickorish, BA Hilary Baddeley, PhD Vlasta Malinek, BA Mark Boden Rob Milroy, MA Peter Bright, MSc Valerie Ridgeway, PhD Sally Butterfield, MPhil Gerhard Rinkenauer, MA Ben Clegg, BSc Fred Roberts Alan Copeman Christopher Robinson, MA Sally Cox, BSc Sophie Scott, PhD Jay Datta, BA Agnes Shiel, MSc John Dennett WenTao Song, MSc Ann Doubleday, MSc Martin Stacey, PhD Mitchum D'Souza, MSc Eamon Strain, PhD Jonathan Evans, BSc Steven Taylor Vincent Everett, BSc Rachel Toplis, BSc David Hendry, MSc Tony Ward, PhD Elaine Hoffner, BA Peter Watson, PhD Jane Hutton, BA Graham Wells Peter James, BSc
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
Eeva Abrahams, BA Sharon Gamble Ann Anderson Jacqueline Harper Lillian Astell Caroline Muncey Ann Copeman Sandra Stops Julia Darling Dee Tolfree Lorraine Dingley
ATTACHED WORKERS
MRC Scholars Visiting Scholars
Michael Akeroyd, MPhil Brita Elvevaag, Paul Atkins, MSc Linda Clare, MA
BSc
Kim Graham, BSc Richard Henson, MSc Karen Croot, BA Michael Dean, MSc
Colette Hirsch, BSc Mark Evans
Kate Leafhead, BSc Yvette Froeling
Wai On Lee, MSc Naida Graham, MA
Ann Rafter, BSc Jonathan Kolodny PhD
John Lambie, BSc
Ruud Nijhuis
Christopher Smith
Visiting Scientists
Michael Allerhand, PhD University of Cambridge
Andrew Calder, PhD ESRC Research Award Grant
Davida Charney, PhD Pennsylvania University, USA
James Enns, PhD University of British Columbia,
Canada
Randy Flanagan, PhD McGill University, Canada
Shaun Gallagher, PhD Canisius College, Buffalo, USA
Stephen Handel, PhD University of Tennessee, USA
Chris Herdman, PhD Carlton University, Ontario, Canada
Toshio Irino, DEng NTT Basic Research Labs, Tokyo Japan
Stephen Kirker, MRCP(I) Dept of Rehabilitation,
Addenbrooke'sHospital, Cambridge
Derek Koehler, PhD Stanford University, USA
Michael Kopelman, PhD Academic Unit of Psychiatry, St
Thomas's Hospital, London
Janet Larsen, PhD John Carroll University, USA
Jo-Anne Le-Fevre, PhD Carlton University, Ontario, Canada
Peter Lovibond, PhD University of N.S.W., Australia
Jason Mattingley, PhD Monash University, Clayton, Australia
Richard Moore, PhD Dept of Psychiatry, Addenbrooke's
Hospital, Cambridge
Christopher Poulton, ScD Ex APU Staff Member (retired)
Dan Reisberg, PhD Reed College, Portland, USA
John Russell, PhD Royal Adelaide Hospital, Australia
FORMER MEMBERS OF THE APU whose publications as senior author appear in this issue.
Dr I. Brown 21 Swaynes Lane, Comberton, Cambs.
Dr E. Chronicle Department of Psychology, Lancaster
University, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA14
YW
Dr E. Churchill Department of Psychology, University
of Nottingham, University Park,
Nottingham NG7 2RD
Martin East 43 Arbury Road, Cambridge CB4 2JB
Dr M. Eldridge Rank Xerox EuroPARC, 61 Regent
Street, Cambridge CB2 1AB
Dr R. Flanagan Department of Psychology, Queen's
University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
K7L 3N6
Dr S. Gathercole Department of Psychology, University
of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, Bristol
BS8 1TN
Dr R. Green Apartment 605 North, 1177 Yonge
Street, Toronto, Canada
Dr P. Haggard Department of Psychology, University
College London, Gower Street, London
WC1E 6BT
D. Hendry School of Mathematical and Computing
Sciences, Robert Gordon University,
Schoolhill, Aberdeen
Dr G. Houghton Department of Psychology, University
College of North Wales, Bangor,
Gwynedd LL57 2DG
Dr J. Kolodny 124 Dartmouth Street, West Newton, MA
02165, USA
Dr W.O. Lee Microsoft Corporation, 1 Microsoft
Way, Redmond, WA 98052-6399, USA
Dr C. Lloyd 102 Coles Road, Milton, Cambridge CB4
6BW
Dr A. MacLeod Department of Psychology, Royal
Holloway and Bedford New College,
Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX
Professor W. Marslen-Wilson Department of Psychology, Birkbeck
College, Malet Street, London WC1E
7HX
Dr R.G. Morris Neuropsychology Unit, Department of
Clinical Psychology, Institute of
Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park,
Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF
Dr B. van Ooyen 19 Rue Jouffroy d'Abbaus, 75017
Paris, France
Professor P. Rabbitt Age & Cognitive Performance Research
Centre, University of Manchester,
Manchester M13 9PL
Dr K. Robinson Glasgow Royal Infirmary, MRC
Institute of Hearing Research, Queen
Elizabeth Building, Glasgow G31 2ER
L. Tweedie Room 1007, 10th Floor Electrical
Engineering, Imperial College, London
Professor J.M.G. Williams Department of Psychology, University
College of North Wales, Bangor,
Gwynedd LL57 2DG
AKEROYD, M.A.
See PATTERSON, R.D. & AKEROYD, M.A. APU 3157
PATTERSON, R.D. & AKEROYD, M.A. APU 3288
ALLERHAND, M. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3150
Vocal agitation as a predictor of emotion and stress.
AAM HAP Final Report, APU Contract Report, 1994.
This report contains (1) an overview of the AAM-HAP project, (2) a description of stress measurement using voice input, and (3) studies performed to evaluate the method. The deliverables consist of a software package for auditory image analysis with graphical displays and associated on-line documentation (also attached as an appendix to this report). The experimental studies are designed to evaluate one application of auditory image analysis, namely the automatic measurement of vocal agitation and its use as a predictor of emotional stress. Significant differences were found between stressed and unstressed groups, with a high correlation between automatic and human performance in a stress discrimination task based upon stimuli obtained from cockpit recordings made during flight.
ALLERHAND, M. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3151
User documentation for the AIM software package.
AAM HAP Progress Report No. 5, APU Contract Report, 1994.
On-line documentation for the auditory image model (AIM) has been generated and installed as part of the distribution. The documentation includes man pages for all of the new tools that have been added to facilitate processing of the output of the auditory model. Moreover, the documentation can be installed with a standard man path which is compatible with xman if it is installed in the system.
See PATTERSON, R.D., Anderson, T. & ALLERHAND, M. APU 3158
ALLISON, S.
See FLANAGAN, J.R., WING, A.M., ALLISON, S. & SPENCELEY, A. APU 3270
Anderson, T. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3152
Speaker recognition with the auditory image model and self-organising feature maps: A comparison with traditional techniques.
In Proceedings of ESCA Workshop (Martingy, Switzerland), 1994.
Speech and speaker recognition were examined using Self-Organizing Feature Maps (SOFMs) and three different representations of speech - traditional Mel-Cepstral Coefficients (MCC) and the integrated outputs of two different models of the auditory periphery: the Auditory Image Model (AIM) of Patterson and Payton's auditory model (PAM). AIM is a functional model of human hearing up to the level of our initial experience of a sound, that is, our 'auditory image' of the sound. PAM is a neurophysiologically based model of the auditory periphery. In the current experiments the input vectors for the recognizer were based on the neural activity patterns flowing from the cochlea simulations of AIM and PAM. The phoneme recognition results are based on the 39 phoneme classes of K.F. Lee. The results show that the auditory models support better recognition accuracy than MCC using the training and test sets from dialect regions 1 and 2 of the TIMIT database (1140 sentences from 114 speakers for training, 370 sentences from 37 speakers for testing). The two representations made different types of phoneme errors. Speaker recognition experiments using these same representations showed that AIM provides results comparable to that of MCC. PAM did not perform as well.
ANDRADE, J. APU 3089
Is learning during anaesthesia implicit?
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 395-396, 1994.
Commentary on target article by Shanks and St. John. In the absence of a reliable monitor of depth of anaesthesia, moments of consciousness during general anaesthesia may go undetected. Implicit memory of intraoperative events cannot, therefore, be taken as evidence for implicit learning.
ANDRADE, J. APU 3139
Learning during anaesthesia: A review.
British Journal of Psychology, in press.
Can learning occur during general anaesthesia? This paper reviews the studies which have addressed this issue and finds some evidence of implicit memory for intraoperative events, even with clinically adequate anaesthesia. This has implications both for clinical practice and for psychological theories of learning and awareness. However, since many of the studies have been opportunistic, neither the anaesthetic techniques nor the paradigms used to assess memory have been standardised. Methodological improvements are discussed, in particular the need for a reliable means of monitoring awareness during anaesthesia. These improvements would enable researchers to determine the conditions under which learning occurs and would provide information about the role of consciousness in learning.
ANDRADE, J. & Munglani, R. APU 3088
Therapeutic suggestions during general anaesthesia.
British Journal of Anaesthesia, 72, p. 730, 1994.
Comments on a recent meta-analysis (Millar, 1993) of research into the potential therapeutic effects of intraoperative suggestion. We agree with Millar's criticisms of the current methodology but are concerned that his paper is being interpreted as a general refutation of the claim that learning can occur during general anaesthesia.
See Russo, R. & ANDRADE, J. APU 3247
BADDELEY, A.D. & ANDRADE, J. APU 3128
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3078
Theories of normal memory.
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson, & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the Assessment and Rehabilitation of Brain-damaged Patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action (pp. 93-97). Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
In the last 25 years, neuropsychology has had an increasingly substantial impact upon theories of normal cognitive functioning. The effect has been particularly marked in the study of memory, where ideas on the conceptual structure of human memory have changed markedly as a result of this interaction. During the 1960s, evidence from amnesic patients and from patients with a specific deficit in short-term phonological memory formed one of the major arguments for a distinction between short-term and long-term memory. These two concepts themselves have subsequently proved to fragment, with short-term memory being re-conceptualised as a multi-component working memory, while long-term memory itself has had a number of sub-divisions proposed. These two broad areas are discussed in turn.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3081
The magical number seven: Still magic after all these years? Psychological Review, 101, 353-356, 1994. (Invited commentary for centenary issue of the journal.)
The "magical number seven" gives a beautifully clear account of information theory and demonstrates how the concept of limited channel capacity can be applied across a range of sensory dimensions. However, its major influence stems not from this but from the demonstration that immediate memory span is relatively insensitive to amount of information per item. In emphasizing the importance of the recoding of information and developing the concept of chunking, Miller set the agenda for the next phase of cognitive psychology in which information-processing concepts went beyond the confines of information theory. This article continues to be cited because these underlying ideas continue to be fruitful.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3125
Les mémoires humaines.
La Recherche, 25, 730-735, 1994.
This brief overview of the psychology of memory was invited by a popular French science magazine as part of its Special Issue on the Neurobiology of Memory.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3252
Las memorias humanas.
Mundo Cientifico, 14, 802-807, 1994.
This is a version in Spanish of APU 3125; it formed part of the Spanish-language version of the Special Issue on The Neurobiology of Memory.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3126
Working memory.
In M. Gazzaniga (Ed.), Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, pp. 755-764, 1995.
Working memory refers to the temporary storage of information in connection with performing other, more complex tasks. A brief account of the application of the concept to animal learning, artificial intelligence, and developmental psychology is followed by a more detailed description of the related concept of short-term memory. A unitary short-term store proved too simple to function as an adequate working memory and later evolved into the concept of a multicomponent working memory. It is proposed that this comprises an attentional control system, the central executive, aided by slave systems responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of either visual material (the visuospatial sketchpad), or verbal material (the phonological loop). Finally, the role of the phonological loop in language acquisition is briefly discussed.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3127
The psychology of memory.
In A.D. Baddeley, B.A. Wilson and F.N. Watts (Eds), Handbook of Memory Disorders. Chichester: John Wiley, pp. 2-25, 1995.
This chapter gives an overview of the psychology of memory, which together with an overview of the neurobiological foundations of memory acts as an introduction to the handbook. The chapters aim to free the writers of subsequent chapters to concentrate on their more specialised topics.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3264
Learning and memory.
MRC Annual Report, 1994.
This constitutes an invited review of the Council's recent work in the area of learning and memory. It encompasses the Unit's own work on normal memory and its breakdown in neuropsychological patients, together with recent work from the MRC Cyclotron Unit in which functional imaging is used to explore the anatomical basis of various components of memory. The review concludes with a discussion of research on long-term potentiation and research on the neurochemical basis of learning.
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3265
Applying the psychology of memory to clinical problems.
In D. Herrmann, M. Johnson, C. McEvoy, C. Hertzog & P. Hertel (Eds), Basic and Applied Memory: Theory in Context Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press.
While cognitive psychology has gained immeasurably from the study of brain damaged patients, it is far less clear what the patients have gained from cognitive psychology. It is suggested that cognitive psychology can contribute to practical problems of neuropsychology in at least three ways, by adapting measures from the cognitive laboratory to clinical use, from using the skills of the cognitive psychologist to develop better ways of assessing memory deficit, and finally through attempting to use the theoretical developments in human memory to enhance treatment. Recent work is used to illustrate each of these points.
BADDELEY, A.D. & ANDRADE, J. APU 3128
Reversing the word length effect: A comment on Caplan, Rochon and Waters
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47A, 1047-1054, 1994.
Caplan, Rochon, and Waters (1992) report a failure to observe the poorer immediate serial recall for words of longer spoken duration obtained by Baddeley, Thomson, and Buchanan (1975) and subsequently replicated by others. Indeed, they find a significant reversal of this effect. We present evidence that the material used by Caplan et al. differs only minimally in spoken duration under speeded articulation conditions (Exp. 1 = 1.9%, Exp 2 = 2.31%), in contrast to a clear difference in the case of the original Baddeley et al. material (24.5%). It is further suggested that the reversal of the word-length effect may result from differences in acoustic similarity between the "long" and "short" word sets used by Caplan et al. We conclude that the evidence continues to indicate that longer spoken duration is associated with reduced memory span.
BADDELEY, A.D., EMSLIE, H. & NIMMO-SMITH, I. APU 3134
Doors and People: A test of visual and verbal recall and recognition.
Flempton, Bury St. Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company, 1994.
Doors and People is a broadly-based test of long-term memory. It yields a single age-scaled overall score which can be 'unpacked' to give separate measures of visual and verbal memory, recall and recognition, and forgetting. It is designed for use both as a clinical tool and as a research instrument.
BADDELEY, A.D. & Hitch, G.J. APU 3233
Developments in the concept of working memory.
Neuropsychology, in press.
A brief account is given of our working memory model, as proposed some 20 years ago. We go on to describe modifications to the original proposal, concentrating particularly on the application of the model to the study of neuropsychological deficits, and to aspects of the development of working memory. While genuine progress appears to have been made, there remain many gaps in our knowledge, suggesting that working memory is likely to prove a fruitful area of continued interaction between cognitive psychology and neuropsychology.
BADDELEY, A.D. & MAY, J. APU 3250
Fifty years of the MRC Applied Psychology Unit.
The Psychologist, 7, 513-514, 1994.
This invited paper marks the 50th birthday of the APU with an account of its history from its foundation in 1944 on the basis of ongoing research on military problems, through to its current concerns with cognitive psychology and its growing interest in clinical applications.
BADDELEY, A.D., Meeks Gardner, J. & Grantham-McGregor, S. APU 3129
Cross-cultural cognition: Developing tests for developing countries.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, in press.
The problems of adapting measures of cognitive performance to Third World conditions are described, and three novel adaptations are proposed, one based on speed of sentence comprehension, one on vocabulary acquisition, and a third on speed of visual search using pictorial material. These and other existing tests are applied to studying the cognitive performance of Jamaican children as part of an investigation into the effects on cognition of infection by the parasitic worm Trichuris trichiura. We demonstrate that the tests are usable under Third World field conditions, and give reliable results. The validity of our proposed tests is indicated by their capacity to predict scholastic performance. Despite their brevity and avoidance of any demand on literacy, they yielded substantial correlations with the reading, spelling and arithmetic scales of the Wide Range Achievement Test.
BADDELEY, A.D., Thornton, A., Chua, S.E. & McKenna, P. APU 3131
Schizophrenic delusions and the construction of autobiographical memory.
In D.C. Rubin (Ed.), Constructing our Past: Autobiographical Memory. New York: Cambridge University Press, in press.
This chapter gives a naturalistic account of the delusional recollections of five schizophrenic patients. Their neuropsychological profile is shown to be broadly equivalent to that of a sample of non-deluded patients, with the possible exception that the latter control patients show less fluent autobiographical memory. Implications of delusions for the construction of autobiographical memory are discussed, and a tentative account of delusional recollection is provided.
BADDELEY, A.D., WILSON, B.A. & WATTS, F.N. (Eds) APU 3104
Handbook of Memory Disorders.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
One of the most striking features of the study of memory in recent years has been the extent to which work on clinical populations of subjects has contributed to the understanding of normal function. This has led to a large number of books and conference papers by and for memory research workers. While this material is beginning to filter through to clinicians and practitioners, the process has so far been a relatively slow one. The primary purpose of the present handbook is to speed up this process by encouraging our colleagues with expertise in specific areas of memory deficit to summarise recent work in a way that will make it accessible to the practising clinician. The book has four components, it begins with two brief review chapters concerned with the psychology and neurobiological basis of memory, followed by three more specialised sections. The first of these describes a range of different types of memory deficit, the second is concerned with issues of assessment of memory performance, while the third is concerned with the clinical management of memory problems.
See Becker, J.T., Caldararo, R., BADDELEY, A.D., Dew, M.A.,
Heindel, W.C., Banks, G., Dorst, S.K. & Lopez, O.L. APU 3268
de Wall, C., WILSON, B.A. and BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3101
Gathercole, S.E., Willis, C.S., BADDELEY, A.D. & EMSLIE, H. APU 3132
McKenna, P.J. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3130
McKenna, P.J., Clare, L. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3133
Morris, R.G., Abrahams, S., BADDELEY, A.D. & Polkey, C.E. APU 3263
Robbins, T., Anderson, E., Barker, D., Bradley, A., Fearneyhough, C., Henson, R., Hudson, S. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3266
TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J., PROCTOR, L., LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
WILSON, B.A., BADDELEY, A.D., EVANS, J.J, & Shiel, A. APU 3102
BARNARD, P.J. (Ed.) APU 3122
AMODEUS 2: ESPRIT Basic Research Action 7040, Periodic Progress Report 2, and Associated Scientific Deliverables.
Brussels: CEC, July, 1994.
This document is the second report of the second in the series of AMODEUS projects funded under the programme of ESPRIT Basic Research. The first project focused upon the development of interdisciplinary modelling approaches. The second project places more emphasis upon the practical utilisation of modelling techniques within the process of design. This report summarises progress made in the first year of the project. The project reports several significant extensions to basic cognitive modelling techniques to formal models to the interactive behaviour of computer systems. The relevant extensions enable the models to deal with dynamic graphic environments and multimodal communication. The project has developed means of representing key issues in complex design problems. More than 200 papers from this project are available electronically in pub/amodeus@ftp.ac.uk.
BARNARD, P.J. APU 3123
The contributions of applied cognitive psychology to the study of human-computer interaction.
In R. Baecker, J. Grudin, W. Buxton and S. Greenberg (Eds), Readings in Human-Computer Interaction, Second Edition. Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. [Reproduction of APU 2205], in press.
Alternative "visions" of an applied science are examined and an organising schema for the role of empirical and conceptual methods is outlined. The achievements of applied research are then reviewed under four headings: the achievements of explanatory empiricism; the achievements of analytical approaches; the achievements of experimental approaches; and theoretical synthesis as a means to pragmatic tools.
BARNARD, P.J., BLANDFORD, A.E. & MAY, J. APU 3193
Demonstration of expert system capability.
Documentation to support and accompany D19, Constituent part of scientific deliverables associated with APU 2962, pp 136, 1992.
At the end of the first Amodeus project, an expert system was developed to show how concepts derived from Interacting Cognitive Subsystems could be applied to practical design settings in HCI. This document lists the full set of expert system rules. It also lists the outputs for three of the seven examples on which it was tested.
BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3256
Interactions with advanced graphical interfaces and their deployment of latent human knowledge.
In F. Paterno, (Ed.), The Design, Specification and Verification of Interactive Systems Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 15-48, 1995.
Advanced graphical interfaces are increasingly dynamic, multimodal and involve multithreaded dialogues. This paper provides a theoretical perspective that can support an analysis of the issues involved in their use; the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) framework. This framework is used to examine alternative ways in which information from different data streams can be blended with in perception, thought and control of action. The potential applicability of the core constructs to the interface design is considered. The paper concludes by outlining a specific strategy for bringing this form of understanding into closer harmony with the formal methods community in computer science.
BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3194
Real time blending of data streams: A key problem for the cognitive modelling of multimodal systems.
AMODEUS working Paper UM/WP 10; May 1993, pp 25. Constituent part of scientific deliverable D2 associated with APU 2963, 1993.
This paper applies Interacting Cognitive Subsystems to issues associated with the multimodal integration of information. The paper briefly describes those parts of the theory that are pertinent. It examines the relevant literature both on the integration of sources of information within a modality as well as a wide range of cases involving multimodal sources. The paper develops and structures the specific design issues and provides concrete pointers to the form and content of likely ICS analyses. Some surprising results emerge from these preliminary analyses. Foremost among these are speculations about the extensive part played by central representations in controlling what, at first sight, might appear to be purely peripheral forms of multimodal integration.
See Duke, D., Duce, D., BARNARD, P.J.,
Harrison, M.D. & MAY, J. APU 3198
Harrison, M., BLANDFORD, A.E. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3124
MAY J. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3196
MAY, J & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3283
MAY, J. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3282
TWEEDIE, L., BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3197
Bates, C., Evans, P., Allison, G., Sonko, B., Hoare, S.,
GOODRICH, S.J. & Aspray, T. APU 3253
Biochemical indices and neuromuscular function tests in rural Gambian schoolchildren given a riboflavin, or multivitamin plus iron, supplement.
British Journal of Nutrition, 72, 601-610, 1994.
Ninety children, aged between 8 and 14 years, living in two rural West African villages, were randomly divided into two groups, matched for age and sex. One group received a placebo (lactose) tablet, one received riboflavin (5 mg) five times weekly (sufficient to correct an endemic riboflavin deficiency), and one received a multivitamin supplement (Protovit; Hoffmann La Roche) five times weekly in addition to FeSO4 (200 mg) once weekly. Supplements were given for one year. Neuromuscular tests were given on three occasions: prior to the introduction of supplements; then at 6 weeks and one year after introduction. Venous blood samples were collected at the same time as the first two sets of neuromuscular tests. These samples were used for haematology and nutrient state indices. The riboflavin in both supplements achieved a clear-cut response in biochemical status, which was dose-dependent. Although overall the arm tremor and related neuromuscular function tests did not respond significantly to the supplements, significant improvements was seen for the boys for the arm-tremor test in both supplemented groups.
Baurén, M., GREEN, T.R.G. & Petre, M. APU 3214
From PLOP to PLITH: A cognitive model of programming pointer problems.
In Psychology of Programming Interest Group Annual Workshop (Paris, 1992), pp. 104-107, 1992.
Pointer structures are hard to understand. We report a simple model of the translation from Programming Language on Paper to Programming Language In the Head, which accounts for the difficulty.
Becker, J.T., Caldararo, R., BADDELEY, A.D., Dew, M.A.,
Heindel, W.C., Banks, G., Dorst, S.K. & Lopez, O.L. APU 3268
Methodological considerations in estimating speed of cognitive operations.
Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 1, 3-9, 1995.
Individuals infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and having cognitive impairment have been described as having slow mentation. Data supporting this proposition come from a variety of sources, including Sternberg's (1966) item recognition memory task. The procedure nominally provides an index of speed of mental operations, independent from input/output demands. However, since the original use of this procedure in the 1960s, advances in cognitive psychology have revealed many of its limitations. The purpose of the present study was to examine the psychometric characteristics of this task. Each participant performed the Sternberg item recognition task twice, 6 mo apart. The stability of the estimate of the slope of regression equations and for zero intercept ranged from excellent (r = .87) to poor (r = .30), and the data from many individual subjects could not be reliably modelled using multiple linear regression techniques. These data, as well as those from previous research, demonstrate the limited practical use of this task in clinical samples. Furthermore, as cognitive psychological theory has advanced in the past 30 yr, the conceptual underpinnings of the procedure have essentially evaporated.
BEKERIAN, D.A. & DENNETT, J.L. APU 3234
Improving communication and trust with memory techniques
In R.M. Taylor & J. Reising (Eds), The Human-Electronic Crew: Can we trust the team? (Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Human-Computer Teamwork Cambridge, 1994) Farnborough, Hampshire: Defence Research Agency Centre for Human Sciences, 1995, S-III, 15, 1995.
Communication is one of the most essential ingredients for successful team work. Sharing knowledge, that is communicating to other team members what you know, is critical. When communication involves remembering a specific event, or details that happened during the execution of some procedures, psychological data on memory-enhancing techniques can be of great use. The discussion presented here considers one very successful memory technique, known as the Cognitive Interview technique (CI). CI has already proven itself, in the United States, Continental Europe and Great Britain, as a powerful communication aid, in contexts ranging from evidential interviews with trauma victims to marketing research on people's shopping habits. CI, it would seem, improves communication. We provide some background information about CI, its basic memory techniques, and also discuss how other features of communication, like trust or rapport building, can be improved through the application of memory techniques like CI.
BEKERIAN, D.A. & GOODRICH, S.J. APU 3281
Telling the truth in the Recovered Memory Debate.
Consciousness and Cognition, 4, 120-124, 1995.
The Recovered Memory debate has progressively dominated the attention of memory researchers. This article suggests that the critical issue in the debate -- who is telling the truth -- is beyond the professional domain of memory theorists. The article suggests areas where memory theorists might more appropriately direct their efforts.
See Eldridge, M., SELLEN, A.J. & BEKERIAN, D. APU 3231
Bermùdez, J., MARCEL, A.J. & Eilan, N. (Eds) APU 3112
The Body and The Self.
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, Bradford Books, in press.
Many usages of the term 'self-consciousness' seem to imply an awareness of ourselves as purely psychological entities. Largely unexplored is the relation of self-consciousness to bodily awareness. This book attempts to fill that gap. It contains contributions from philosophy, developmental psychology, neuropsychology, clinical psychology and sensory psychology and neurophysiology. It focuses on the different kinds of self, what is required for different kinds of self-consciousness (a self-world distinction, memory) and how they may arise from various sources (perception, action, social interaction) as mediated through the body and representations of it. Central to many chapters are explorations of different conceptions of a body image and body schema. Most contributions are interdisciplinary and relate theoretical issues to data. An introductory (APU 3114) chapter interrelates the contributions and contextualizes them in terms of issues of representation and the relation between self as object and as subject.
Binnie, C.D., Harding, G.F., Richens, A. & WILKINS, A.J. APU 3285
Video games and epileptic seizures - a consensus statement
Seizure, 3, 245-246, 1994.
In response to recent concern about epileptic seizures apparently being triggered by video-games, an international expert group met in London in September 1993, comprising investigators who have contributed to the study of human photosensitive epilepsy in the past two decades. The statement was drafted by a working committee of this group and is based on information currently available.
Bird, J., BISHOP, D.V.M. & Freeman, N. APU 3249
Phonological awareness and literacy development in children with expressive phonological impairments.
Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, in press.
This study investigated the link between expressive phonological impairments, phonological awareness, and literacy. Previous investigations of literacy skills in speech-impaired children have given mixed results; here we considered whether presence of additional language impairments or severity of the speech impairment were important prognostic factors. 31 children with expressive phonological impairments were compared with control children matched on age and nonverbal ability on three occasions, at mean ages of 70, 79 and 91 months. On each occasion they were given three tests of phonological awareness: one involved rime-matching and two involved onset-matching. At assessments 2 and 3 literacy skills were assessed. Children with phonological impairments scored well below their controls on phonological awareness and literacy, regardless of whether or not they had other language problems. Although many of them knew letter sounds, they were poor at reading and writing nonwords as well as real words. It is suggested that both the speech impairment and the literacy problems arise from a failure to analyse syllables into smaller phonological units. The severity of the phonological problems in relation to age is an important determinant of literacy outcome.
BISHOP, D.V.M. APU 3210
When the talking fails to start.
MRC News, Summer 1994, 13-15, 1994.
This is a short article written for the layman summarising the main findings of APU 3092.
BISHOP, D.V.M. APU 3286
Autism, executive functions, and theory of mind: A neuropsychological perspective.
In M.E. Hertzig & E.A. Farber (Eds), Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development 1994 New York: Brunner/Mazel Inc., (pp.359-376) [Reprinted from Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 279-293, 1993], 1995.
This is a reprint of APU 2770.
BISHOP, D.V.M. APU 3091
Is specific language impairment a valid diagnostic category? Genetic and psycholinguistic evidence.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 346, 105-111, 1994.
Specific language impairment (SLI) is diagnosed when a child fails to develop language normally for no apparent reason: hearing and intelligence are adequate and the social environment is unexceptional. Definitions of SLI typically specify that the child must have a substantial discrepancy between language ability and nonverbal IQ. However, data from a twin study question the validity of this requirement, and indicate that SLI is not genetically distinct from less specific disorders where language impairment occurs in the context of low average or borderline nonverbal ability. A second question concerns the heterogeneous language symptoms seen in SLI: do these correspond to distinct conditions, to different phenotypic manifestations of a common underlying disorder, or are they merely random variations resulting from unreliable assessments? The last of these possibilities is ruled out by the finding that twins who are concordant for language disorder show good agreement in terms of the pattern of language impairment. However, systematic variation in the age and ability of children in different SLI subgroups suggest that these may correspond to variable manifestations of a core inherited language disorder, rather than distinct diagnostic entities.
BISHOP, D.V.M., North, T. & Donlan, C. APU 3092
Genetic basis of specific language impairment: Evidence from a twin study.
Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 37, 41-55, 1995.
Concordance rates were compared for 63 MZ and 27 DZ same-sex twin pairs, aged 7 years and over, selected because at least one twin met diagnostic criteria for specific speech or language impairment. There was significant heritability for developmental speech and language disorder, defined according to DSM-III-R criteria. When the definition of the phenotype was broadened to include those with a past history of disorder and those with a less pronounced discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal ability, concordance for MZ twins was close to 100%, with that for DZ twins approximately 50%. There was also close similarity between concordant twins for type of disorder. There is good evidence that genetic factors play a role the aetiology of SLI; twin data may help us arrive at a clearer conception of the phenotype as well as quantifying the extent of genetic contribution.
See Bird, J., BISHOP, D.V.M. & Freeman, N. APU 3249
Davies, S., BISHOP, D.V.M., Manstead, A.S.R. & Tantam, D. APU 3246
BLANDFORD, A.E.
See BARNARD, P.J., BLANDFORD, A.E. & MAY, J. APU 3193
Harrison, M., BLANDFORD, A.E. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3124
Broeder, P. & MURRE, J.M. (Eds) APU 3279
Abstract Proceedings of the Workshop on Cognitive Models of Language Acquisition.
Report in the series of the Institute for Language Technology and Artificial Intelligence (ITK), 1994.
These are the proceedings of the international 'Workshop on Cognitive Models of Language Acquisition', 21-23 April 1994, Tilburg University, the Netherlands sponsored by the Dutch National Ph.D. Program in Linguistics. The theme of the workshop was centered around the nature and origins of language as 'an individual phenomenon'. Most of the abstracts describe (computational) models of language acquisition or experimental data and analyses relevant for such models.
Brown, G.D.A., Britain, A.A., ELVEVÅG, B. & Mitchell, I.F. APU 3230
A computations approach to fronto-striatal dysfunction in schizophrenia and Parkinson's Disease.
In M. Oaksford & G.D.A. Brown (Eds), Neurodynamics and Psychology, London: Academic Press, pp. 35-82, 1994.
This chapter aimed to demonstrate how adoption of an explicitly computational approach can lead to novel hypotheses regarding the psychological deficits in Parkinson's Disease and schizophrenia and how these relate to neuroanatomy. The particular emphasis was on explaining cognitive and motor deficits in terms of the disruption of timing relations between different subsystems of the brain. It was assumed that the cortico-striato-pallido-thalamic loops running through the basal ganglia can be seen as computing a "Forward Model" of the environment. In general terms, a "Forward Model" is a system that can predict the effects in the word of carrying out some action, and thus functions as a kind of internal simulator, or model of some aspect of the world. It was argued that the pattern of both cognitive and motor deficits observed in Parkinson's Disease and schizophrenia can be explained in terms of disruptions to various parts of these loops.
BROWN, I.D. APU 3277
Accident reporting and analysis.
In J.R. Wilson & E.N. Corlett (Eds), Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology London: Taylor & Francis (2nd edition), in press.
This chapter aims to enhance the understanding of behavioural causes of accidents in order to improve identification of appropriate measures for accident reduction and prevention within human-technological systems. An 'accident' is defined as: "the unplanned outcome of inappropriate behaviour" and the initial section of the chapter summarises a variety of theories that have been advanced to explain why operator behaviour may sometimes be inappropriate to task and environmental demands. Attention is then given to the need for purposeful and factual reporting of accident data, which avoids premature attribution of causation and which can readily be translated into task-specific, primary and/or secondary safety measures. Finally, the analysis of data is considered; emphasis being given to the need to base this on theories of human error derived from cognitive ergonomics, in order to improve safety by reducing mismatches between system demands and operator behaviour.
BUTTERFIELD, S.
See Fear, B.D., CUTLER, A. & BUTTERFIELD, S. APU 3259
CARLYON, R.P. APU 3238
Extracting the fundamental frequencies of two concurrent sounds.
In H. Kawara (Ed.), Proceeding of the ATR Workshop on "A Biological Framework for Speech Perception and Production", pp. 67-72, Kyoto, Japan, 1995.
Two concurrent harmonic sounds were mixed and passed through a bandpass filter, with cutoffs of either 20-1420 Hz ("low condition"; components resolved by auditory system) or 3900-5400 Hz ("high condition"; components unresolved). One complex (the "masker") had an F0 of 210 Hz in both intervals of each 2IFC trial. Sensitivity (d') was measured to F0 differences ("[[Delta]]F0s") in the other ("target") complex between the two intervals of each trial. In the low condition, listeners could hear two clear pitches in each interval, and performance on the discrimination task was reasonably good (d' approximately 0.75 for [[Delta]]F0 = 4%) regardless of whether the masker was gated synchronously with the target or started 150 ms before and ended 150 ms after it. In contrast, the mixture in the "high" condition was perceived as a single, aperiodic sound, similar to a crackle, and discrimination in the presence of an asynchronous masker was close to chance, even for [[Delta]]F0 = 16%. This, together with other findings, suggests that listeners are poor at extracting the F0s of two groups of overlapping unresolved harmonics. Performance in the high condition was better with a synchronous than with an asynchronous masker. Experiments are presented which test alternative explanations for this difference.
CHRONICLE, E. APU 3240
The influence of colour on visual discomfort in migraineurs and controls.
In T.J. Steiner & L.A.H. Hogenhuis (Eds), Headache and Migraine 2 pp. 1-9 , Utrecht: Bunge, 1993.
This chapter reports two experiments that investigated the effects of colour on visual function in migraine. In the first, 15 migraineurs and 15 age and sex-matched controls adjusted the hue and saturation of an illuminating source in order to maximise the visual discomfort evoked by a grating stimulus. Migraineurs reliably choose saturated reddish colours, whereas controls chose randomly. In the second, 12 migraineurs with aura [MA], 12 migraineurs without aura [M] and 12 matched controls [C] were required to identify the orientation of a letter projected onto a grating pattern. The grating was illuminated by three colours of equal luminance: red, blue and neutral. The red illuminant was identical to that found to maximise discomfort in Experiment 1. There was a significant effect of diagnosis, with MA subjects requiring higher luminance of the target for correct identification than either M or C subjects. For MA and M subjects, red light made the target letter orientation more difficult to identify than blue, whereas for C subjects this difference was not as great. It is suggested that these data are consistent with an hypothesis that certain cells in the visual cortex are selectively vulnerable to the effects of repeated migraine attacks.
CHURCHILL, E.F. APU 3183
Models of models: Cognitive, computational and empirical investigations of learning a device.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1993.
The users of interactive devices are assumed to possess both procedural and model-based knowledge. The 'mental model', in its various forms, concept has received much attention in the literature but it has been generally assumed for the purposes of empirical studies that the mental models formed by subjects in laboratory investigations are directly influenced by the instructions they receive. In the first part of this thesis, simulations were developed to address the issue of how differing representations of task knowledge affect task performance. These simulations were built in Soar, a cognitive architecture for a 'United Theory of Cognition', and they used Soar's learning mechanism ('chunking') to predict how expert performance would develop, starting from various representation of task knowledge. The second part reports empirical tests of these predictions. Performance accuracy, timing, and verbal protocols were analysed to show that the predictions were almost entirely disconfirmed. Instead the experiments demonstrate that users induce device knowledge, both procedural and model-based, and that this 'new' knowledge plays a major role in the derivation of solution methods. New versions of the models, with greater emphasis on 'display-based problem solving', gave a better match.
CLAPP, S.
See WING, A.M., CLAPP, S. & Burgess-Limerick, R. APU 3227
Cohen, G., Conway, M.A. & MAYLOR, E.A. APU 3143
Flashbulb memories in older adults.
Psychology and Aging, 9, 454-463, 1994.
In this study of age differences in flashbulb memory, groups of young and older adults gave detailed accounts of how they heard the news of the resignation of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. They were tested within 14 days after the event and again 11 months later. They also gave ratings for the encoding variables (surprise, emotion, importance, knowledge, and interest) and for frequency of rehearsal. Memories that met a strict criterion of consistency between the original and delayed responses were classified as flashbulb memories. Although 90% of young Ss had flashbulb memories, only 42% of the elderly met the criterion. The age groups also differed in the type of details remembered and in the relationship between the encoding and rehearsal variables and the occurrence of flashbulb memory. The age-related deficit in flashbulb memory is related to source amnesia and to a deficit in memory for context.
CROOT, K.
See PATTERSON, K., CROOT, K. & Hodges, J. APU 3213
Currie, M., Mackay, P., Morgan, C., Runciman, W., Russell, W.,
SELLEN, A.J., Webb, R. & Williamson, J. APU 3119
The "wrong drug" problem in anaesthesia: An analysis of 2000 incident reports.
Anaesthesia & Intensive Care, 21, 596-601, 1993.
Amongst the first 2000 incidents reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study, there were 144 incidents in which the "wrong drug" was nearly or actually administered to a patient. Thirty-three percent of the incidents involved ampoules and just over 40% syringes; in over half of the latter the syringes were of the same size, and also, in over half, they were correctly labelled. In 81% of the 144 incidents the "wrong drug" was actually given. This was more common with syringes (93%) than ampoules (58%). Thus the most common error was actually giving the wrong drug from a correctly labelled syringe. The most common drug involved was a muscle relaxant in both ampoule and syringe incidents. In 74% of all reports, there was the potential for serious harm to the patient; however no deaths were reported. Factors which contributed significantly to the incidents were similar appearance, inattention and haste. "Failure of communication" was a significant factor in syringe incidents when two or more staff were involved. The only significant factor which minimised the outcome was rechecking of the syringe or drug ampoule before giving the drug. Strategies suggested to address the "wrong drug" problem include colour coding of selected drug classes for both ampoules and syringes; the use of standardised drug storage, layout and selection protocols; having a drawing up and labelling convention; and the use of checking protocols.
CUTLER, A. APU 3064
The perception of rhythm in language.
Cognition, in press.
The rhythm of language helps listeners choose segmentations when speech is proceeding. But unless the arrangement provides overt cues it is hard to spot rhythm when reading.
CUTLER, A., NORRIS, D.G. & MCQUEEN, J.M. APU 3065
Modelling lexical access from continuous speech input.
Annual Report, Tokyo International Center, Tokyo, in press.
The recognition of speech involves the segmentation of continuous utterances into their component words. Cross-linguistic evidence is briefly reviewed which suggests that although there are language-specific solutions to this segmentation problem, they have one thing in common: they are all based on language rhythm. In English, segmentation is stress-based: strong syllables are postulated to be the onsets of words. Segmentation, however, can also be achieved by a process of competition between activated lexical hypotheses, as in the Shortlist model. A series of experiments is summarised showing that segmentation of continuous speech depends on both lexical competition and a metrically-guided procedure. In the final section, the implementation of metrical segmentation in the Shortlist model is described: the activation of lexical hypotheses matching strong syllables in the input is boosted and that of hypotheses mismatching strong syllables in the input is penalised.
CUTLER, A. & Otake, T. APU 3171
Mora or phoneme? Further evidence for language specific listening.
Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 824-844. 1994.
Japanese listeners detect speech sound targets which correspond precisely to a mora (a phonological unit which is the unit of rhythm in Japanese) more easily than targets which do not. English listeners detect medial vowel targets more slowly than consonants. Six phoneme detection experiments investigated these effects in both subject populations, presented with native- and with foreign-language input. Japanese listeners produced faster and more accurate responses to moraic than to nonmoraic targets both in Japanese, and, where possible, in English; English listeners responded differently. The detection disadvantage for medial vowels appeared with English listeners both in English and in Japanese; again, Japanese listeners responded differently. Some processing operations which listeners apply to speech input are language-specific; these language-specific procedures, appropriate for listening to input in the native language, may be applied to foreign-language input irrespective of whether they remain appropriate.
See Fear, B.D., CUTLER, A. & BUTTERFIELD, S. APU 3259
NORRIS, D., MCQUEEN, J. & CUTLER, A. APU 3170
NORRIS, D., MCQUEEN, J. & CUTLER, A. APU 3203
DATTA, J.
See PATTERSON, R.D. & DATTA, J. APU 3154
Davies, S., BISHOP, D.V.M., Manstead, A.S.R. & Tantam, D. APU 3246
Face perception in children with autism and Asperger's syndrome.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1033-1057, 1994.
Children with diagnoses of either autism or Asperger's syndrome were matched on measures of verbal mental age with non-autistic control children. They were tested on their abilities to process both facial and non-facial stimuli. There were no significant differences between the low ability autistic and control groups, but the high ability autistic and Asperger's children performed significantly worse than controls across all tests. Group averages masked substantial individual variation. The results are seen as indicating a general perceptual deficit that is not specific to faces or emotions. This appears to be a common correlate of autism and Asperger's syndrome, rather than a core symptom.
Davies, S.P., Gilmore, D.J. & GREEN, T.R.G. APU 3216
Are objects that important? The effects of expertise and familiarity on the classification of object-oriented code.
Human-Computer Interaction, in press.
It has been claimed that object-oriented programming profoundly alters programmers' conceptual representations of programs, allowing a more 'natural' structure. We report classification studies in which novices and experts repeatedly sorted program fragments into ad lib classes. Contrary to expectations, experts tended to focus on syntactic relationships between code fragments, whereas novices were more concerned with object structures. Moreover, those experts who were familiar with the code also appeared to focus upon functional information derived from a syntactic analysis of the code. We suggest that these results weaken the cognitively-based claims for object-oriented programming.
DENNETT, J.L.
See BEKERIAN, D.A. & DENNETT, J.L. APU 3234
D'Erme, P., Gainotti, G., Bartolomeo, P. & ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3100
Early ipsilateral orienting of attention in patients with contralateral neglect.
In M.J. Riddoch & G.W. Humphreys (Eds), Cognitive Neuropsychology and Cognitive Rehabilitation, pp. 205-223, Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994.
Three experiments were carried out to investigate whether early orienting of attention to the side of space ipsilateral to the lesion could mediate unilateral spatial neglect. The first was designed to evaluate forms of lateral orienting of attention so severe as to provoke an overt gaze deviation; this was achieved by assessing systematically the phenomenon of "magnetic gaze attraction". The second investigation evaluated milder forms of automatic orienting of attention by analysing the temporal sequence followed by patients in identifying the pictures of an overlapping figures task: A tendency to initiate the scanning of the pattern from the half space ipsilateral to the lesion was predicted in neglect patients. The third investigation tested whether the ipsilateral orienting of attention would be observed also in conditions requiring central eye fixation. Simple reaction times were recorded in contrasting conditions with and without positional expectancy square "boxes". The ipsilesional box was predicted to attract the patients' attention, increasing reaction times to contralesional targets. The results showed that: 1. right brain-damaged patients tend automatically to orient attention toward the ipsilesional half space more than left brain-damaged patients; 2. this tendency is tightly linked to the presence of behavioural manifestations of neglect; 3. the early rightwards orienting of attention can be observed both in tasks requiring central eye fixation and in tasks where no such constraint is given, provided that stimuli (not necessarily targets) coexist on both sides of space.
D'Erme, P., ROBERTSON, I.H., Bartolomeo, P. & Daniele, A. APU 3067
Unilateral neglect: The fate of the extinguished visual stimuli.
Behavioural Neurology, 6, 143-150, 1993.
Recent neuropsychological literature has provided evidence for the phenomenon of perception without awareness, also referred to as covert (or implicit) knowledge or tacit awareness. Yet little is known to date about the fate of extinguished stimuli in patients with unilateral spatial neglect. Six right brain-damaged patients with USN and one control subject were presented with single lateralized visual stimuli and with pairs of same or different visual stimuli (one right, one left). A same/different judgement and a multiple choice recognition task were performed on overtly unidentified left-sided stimuli, to unveil possible phenomena of covert knowledge. Some evidence of covert knowledge was observed, and its relation to stimulus characteristics and task demands is discussed.
de Wall, C., WILSON, B.A. and BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3101
The Extended Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test: A measure of everyday memory performance in normal adults.
Memory, 2, 149-166, 1994.
The Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test provides a well-validated instrument for detecting everyday memory problems. It was however designed as a screening test, and thus is insufficiently sensitive to detect mild deficits, whether due to brain damage or to the introduction of a drug or stressor. The Extended Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (ERBMT) increases the level of difficulty by doubling the amount of material to be remembered, by combining material from Forms A and B and Forms C and D of the original test to produce two parallel versions of the new extended test. The sensitivity of the ERBMT was assessed by comparing the performance of middle-aged and elderly normal subjects, who would be expected to show modest differences in memory performance. The subtests varied in their sensitivity to this small age difference, but when performance was assessed in terms of scaled scores that allow an overall combined measure of memory performance to be calculated, the test proved highly sensitive, and free of ceiling and floor effects. The ERBMT provides a promising measure of everyday memory in normal adults.
Desimone, R., Chelazzi, L., Miller, E.K. & DUNCAN, J. APU 3069
Neuronal mechanisms of visual attention.
In T. Papathomas (Ed.), Linking Psychophysics, Neurophysiology, and Computational Vision. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, in press.
Selective attention and memory play powerful roles in the processing of visual information by cortical neurons. Unwanted information is filtered from the receptive fields of extrastriate neurons, explaining why we have little awareness of ignored stimuli. Attention thus gates access to memory. Conversely, memory also plays an important role in determining the stimuli to which we attend. New or not-recently-seen stimuli cause the greatest activation of adaptive mnemonic cells in the visual cortex, biasing attention towards new items in a bottom-up manner. Many times, though, we need to search for a particular object in a scene and ignore irrelevant ones, irrespective of their novelty or recency. In this case, top-down mechanisms activate a separate population of visual neurons in expectation of the relevant item and may cause a potentiated response when the item appears. The interplay of these different cortical memory mechanisms may determine the stimuli that are attended and acted upon by motor systems.
Desimone, R. & DUNCAN, J. APU 3148
Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention.
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193-222, 1995.
The behavioural phenomena of visual attention are related to single unit findings in the monkey and the attentional effects of brain lesions in human and animal. Topics addressed include competition between objects in multiple brain systems, and the biasing signals allowing competition to resolve in favour of objects of relevance to current behaviour. Spatially-guided attention involves a network of cortical and subcortical brain systems, including parietal cortex, superior colliculus, and the pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus. When attention is controlled by object features as in visual search, biasing signals are recorded in inferotemporal cortex. In both cases, further control may come from working memory systems of the frontal lobe. Also addressed are behavioural and electrophysiological results relevant to the binding problem, and the time-course of the attentional state.
DOUBLEDAY, A.
See GREEN, T.R.G. & DOUBLEDAY, A. APU 3218
DRITSCHEL, B.H.
See TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J., PROCTOR, L.,
LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
Driver, J., Baylis, G.C., GOODRICH, S.J. & Rafal, R.D. APU 3181
Axis-based neglect of visual shapes.
Neuropsychologia, 32, 1353-1365, 1994.
A new test of "object-centred" visual neglect uses equilateral triangles, with ambiguous principal axes that can be manipulated by context. Three left neglect patients detected gaps in such triangles. The location of the gap relative to the biased principal axis was varied, while maintaining the same egocentric locus. More gaps were missed on the left of the axis. This supports Driver and Halligan's (Cognit. Neuropsychol. 8, 475-496, 1991) claim that neglect can apply to the contralesional side of the shape's principal axis, while avoiding serious flaws in their method. The relation between axis-based neglect and other cases of object-centred neglect is discussed.
Duke, D., Duce, D., BARNARD, P.J., Harrison, M.D. & MAY, J. APU 3198
On the integration of cognitive and system models.
AMODEUS, ID/WP26, pp. 21. Constituent part of the D7 scientific deliverable associated with APU 3122, 1994.
User and system models are typically viewed as independent representations that provide complementary insights into aspects of human-system interaction. Within system development it is usual to see the two activities as separate, or at best loosely coupled, with either the design artefact or some third 'mediating' expression providing the context in which the results of modelling can be related. This paper proposes that formal system models can be combined directly with a representation of human cognition to yield an integrated view of human-system interaction. Aspects of systems that affect usability can then be described and understood in terms of the conjoint behaviour of user and computer.
DUNCAN, J. APU 3138
Selective attention in the primate visual system.
Canadian Psychology, 35, 104-105, 1994.
This is a published abstract describing a series of single unit, PET and behavioural studies addressing the functions and neurophysiology of visual attention. Beyond striate cortex, visual information is processed in a network of separate cortical areas, specialized in part for analysis of different visual attributes. Issues arising in such a modular system include the nature of the attentional state in extrastriate cortex, its flexible control by the requirements of current behaviour, and the coordination between areas implied by attention to whole objects. The evidence suggests that attention is directed to behaviourally relevant objects by advance priming of corresponding neural populations. Attention is manifested as a sustained state of the visuomotor network, during which the distributed representation of an object with its multiple visual attributes becomes available for control of behaviour.
DUNCAN, J. APU 3141
Cooperating brain systems in selective perception and action.
In T. Inui (Ed.), Attention and Performance XVI. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, in press.
A neuropsychological hypothesis - the integrated competition hypothesis - is introduced to account for visual attention in the context of distributed brain activity engendered by visual input. Relevant data concern attentional modulation of single neuron activity in the macaque, extinction phenomena following human and animal brain lesions, and the time-course of the attentional state in normal human vision. According to the hypothesis, objects compete for representation in multiple brain systems, sensory and motor, cortical and subcortical. Competition is integrated, however, such that multiple systems converge to work concurrently on the same object. Local priming of target-selective units is used to give a competitive advantage to currently relevant objects. In single cells of monkey cortex, we see direct evidence for both priming and competition. In the human, multiple brain lesions produce a tendency to extinction, or bias against objects most affected by the lesion. Both spatial and nonspatial forms of extinction are described. In normal behaviour, interference between two attended objects lasts for hundreds of msec. These findings suggest that "attention" is a slowly-evolving state in which multiple brain systems settle together on the selected object, making its different properties available together for control of behavior.
DUNCAN, J. APU 3173
Target and nontarget grouping in visual search.
Perception and Psychophysics, 57, 117-120, 1995.
Results recently reported by Driver, McLeod, and Dienes (1992) are used to contrast three accounts of visual search - in particular, their mechanism for easy conjunction search. In the Driver et al. study, the target was defined by a conjunction of form and movement; the key manipulation was phase in both target and nontarget motion sets. Mechanisms working separately on each display element (inhibition from nontarget features, facilitation from target features) are unable to explain large effects of phase, since this is defined only by relationships between one element and another. As implemented in the guided search model of Cave and Wolfe (1990), local suppression between similar elements is also unable to account for the results. More promising is an approach based on perceptual grouping. Elements moving in phase can be selected (target motion) or rejected (nontarget motion) as a group. Rather than a bias against elements that are similar to or grouped with their neighbours, there is a bias to treat grouped elements together.
DUNCAN, J., Burgess, P. & EMSLIE, H. APU 3254
Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions.
Neuropsychologia, 33, 261-268, 1995.
Generally positive correlations between different ability tests provide the evidence for a factor of "general intelligence" or Spearman's g. Though a possible neural substrate for g is suggested by executive impairments following frontal lobe lesions, preserved IQs in some frontal patients have been taken as strong evidence against this interpretation. We show that such results depend on how g is measured. Patients with superior IQs on the most clinically popular test - the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - show impairments of 20-60 points on conventionally measured fluid intelligence or novel problem solving. On psychometric grounds, it is fluid intelligence that is most closely related to Spearman's g. The data suggest that g may in large part be a reflection of frontal functions.
DUNCAN, J., WARD, R. & Shapiro, K. APU 3116
Direct measurement of attentional dwell time in human vision.
Nature, 369, 313-315, 1994.
In vision, attentional limitations are reflected in interference or reduced accuracy when two objects must be identified at once in a brief display. In our experiments a brief temporal separation was introduced between the two objects to be identified. We measured how long the first object continued to interfere with the second, and hence the time course of the first object's attentional demand. According to conventional serial models, attention is assigned rapidly to one object after another, with a dwell time of only a few dozen milliseconds per item. But we report here that interference lasts for several hundred milliseconds - an order of magnitude more than the prediction of conventional models. We suggest that visual attention is not a high-speed switching mechanism, but a sustained state during which relevant objects become available to influence behaviour. This conclusion is consistent with recent physiological results in the monkey.
See Desimone, R. & DUNCAN, J. APU 3148
Desimone, R., Chelazzi, L., Miller, E.K. & DUNCAN, J. APU 3069
Humphreys, G., Romani, C., Olson, A., Riddoch, M.J. &
DUNCAN, J. APU 3255
EAST, M.P. & WATTS, F.N. APU 3063
Worry and the suppression of imagery.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 851-855, 1994.
This experiment investigates Borkovec's theory that the function of worry is to protect people from potentially distressing emotional imagery. The experiment builds on a previous one of Borkovec and Inz (Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 153-158, 1990) comparing the frequency of thoughts and images in imagery and relaxation. The present experiment confirms the previous finding that worry is associated with less imagery than relaxation, but shows that this is not distinctive to worry. Indeed, an additional control condition, 'present-oriented mentation', was associated with even less imagery than worry. The fact that other kinds of thinking are at least as effective as worry in suppressing emotional imagery indicates that this property of worry is not sufficient to explain its occurrence.
Eilan, N., MARCEL, A.J. & Bermùdez, J. APU 3114
Self-consciousness and the body: Interdisciplinary issues.
In J. Bermùdez, A.J. Marcel & N. Eilan (Eds), The Body and The Self. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, Bradford Books. in press.
This introductory chapter attempts to contextualise the contributions to the book in an interdisciplinary manner, organised around two theses integral to Descartes' "cogito": (a) that the self is a persisting object referred to by "I"; (b) that being self-conscious is linked to certain ways of knowing one's own states, ways of knowing which leave no room for error as to the subject of those states. The first part examines what it is to represent oneself as an object distinct from others and from the environment, what is necessary for these representations and how they may come about. The second part (a) distinguishes proprioceptive systems, proprioceptive information and proprioceptive awareness, (b) examines different representations of the body in terms of their explanatory use, (c) explores the distinctive phenomenology and spatial content of bodily experience and sensations. The final section examines the relationship between the distinctive ways we have of knowing ourselves, the sense of ownership (e.g. of sensations) and the elusiveness of awareness of oneself as a subject. Throughout the chapter psychological and philosophical concepts are related to empirical data.
Eldridge, M., SELLEN, A.J. & BEKERIAN, D. APU 3231
Memory problems at work: Their range, frequency, and severity.
EuroPARC Technical Report No. EPC-92-103, 1992.
This paper reports the results of two studies carried out on memory problems at work. The first study used a diary method to collect a corpus of memory problems. A taxonomy of memory problems was developed and implications for technological support for memory at work are discussed. The second study used a "Memory Lapse Questionnaire" to assess the relative frequencies and severities of various memory problems at work. The results of this questionnaire are reported and implications for the AIR project and its current programme of research are discussed.
ELVEVÅG, B
See Brown, G.D.A., Britain, A.A., ELVEVÅG, B. & Mitchell, I.F. APU 3230
EMSLIE, H.
See BADDELEY, A.D., EMSLIE, H. & NIMMO-SMITH, I. APU 3134
DUNCAN, J., Burgess, P. & EMSLIE, H. APU 3254
Gathercole, S.E., Willis, C.S., BADDELEY, A.D. & EMSLIE, H. APU 3132
EVANS, J.J. APU 3172
Physiotherapy as a clinical science: The role of single case research designs.
Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 10, 65-68, 1994.
There is increasing pressure on many clinical professions, including physiotherapy, to demonstrate the efficacy of their interventions. This paper discusses the potential contribution of single case experimental designs in this evaluation process. Such designs, derived principally from the behaviour modification tradition, complement large scale randomised control group designs, which are often not practical nor appropriate for evaluating clinical interventions. The paper discusses the major single case experimental designs with examples from studies of physiotherapy interventions.
EVANS, J.J., Heggs, A.J., Antoun, N. & Hodges, J.R. APU 3278
Progressive prosopagnosia associated with selective right temporal lobe atrophy: A new syndrome?
Brain, 118, 1-13, 1995.
V.H., a 68 year-old right-handed woman, presented with a progressive deterioration in her ability to recognise faces of familiar people. Neuropsychological testing indicated no deterioration in general intellectual ability from estimates of her pre-morbid IQ (in the high average range), and little or no change in memory, language, perceptual or executive functioning. She is severely impaired on tests of face recognition and has shown some deterioration between testing occasions. In contrast, face perception skills, including emotional expression analysis, appear to be intact. Her knowledge of people from names was originally much better than from faces, but clearly declined on follow-up. This progression is discussed in the context of contemporary models of face processing: we suggest that her prosopagnosic deficit began as a modality-specific disorder which has progressed to a cross-modality loss of person-based semantic knowledge. In addition, she shows a striking dissociation between her ability to recognise faces and unique exemplars from other categories, such as buildings and flowers, which confirms the hypothesis that face processing is indeed special. SPECT and MRI scanning revealed selective hypoperfusion and atrophy of the anterior part of the right temporal lobe respectively.
See WILSON, B.A., BADDELEY, A.D., EVANS, J.J, & Shiel, A. APU 3102
Fear, B.D., CUTLER, A. & BUTTERFIELD, S. APU 3259
The strong/weak syllable disticntion in English.
The Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 97, 1893-1904, 1995.
Strong and weak syllables in English can be distinguished on the basis of vowel quality, of stress, or of both factors. Critical for deciding between these factors are syllables containing unstressed unreduced vowels, such as the first syllable of automaton. In this study twelve speakers produced sets of contextually matched word-initial vowels ranging from stressed to reduced, at normal and at fast speech rates. Measurements of vowel duration, intensity, pitch and spectral quality showed that unstressed unreduced vowels differed significantly from both stressed and reduced vowels. This result held true across speaker sex and dialect. The vowels produced by one speaker were then cross-spliced across the words within each set, and the resulting words' acceptability was rated by listeners. In general, cross-spliced words were only rated significantly less acceptable than unspliced words when reduced vowels interchanged with any other vowel. Correlations between rated acceptability and acoustic characteristics of the cross-spliced words demonstrated that listeners were attending to duration, intensity and spectral quality. Together these results suggest that unstressed unreduced vowels in English pattern differently from both stressed and reduced vowels, so that no acoustic support for a binary categorical distinction exists; nevertheless, listeners make such a distinction, grouping unstressed unreduced vowels by preference with stressed vowels.
FLANAGAN, J.R. & TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3209
Grip-load force coupling: A general control strategy for transporting objects.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 944-957, 1994.
The authors examined the coupling of grip force and load force during point-to-point and cyclic arm movements while holding an object in a variety of grips, including 1- and 2-handed grips and "inverted" grips. In all grips, grip force is modulated in phase with fluctuations in load force that are induced by the arm movement. The tight temporal coupling between grip force and load force seen when moving an object held in a precision grip (Flanagan et al., 1993) is observed in other grips. The control of precision grip force during whole body jumping movements was also investigated. Grip force was modulated in phase with changes in load force induced by jumping even though the arm's joint angles were fixed. The tight temporal coupling between grip force and load force during object transport reflects a general control strategy that is not specific to any particular grip or mode of transport. Models of the coordination of grasp and transport in prehensile behaviours are discussed.
FLANAGAN, J.R., WING, A.M., ALLISON, S. & SPENCELEY, A. APU 3270
Effects of surface texture on weight perception when lifting objects with a precision grip.
Perception & Psychophysics, 37, 282-290, 1995.
In this paper, we show that, when lifting an object using a precision grip with the distal pads of the thumb and index finger at its sides, the perceived weight depends on the object's surface texture. The smoother the surface texture, the greater the perceived weight. We suggest that a smoother object is judged to be heavier because the grip force, normal to the surface, required to prevent it from slipping is greater. The possibility of there being an influence of surface texture per se is excluded by a second experiment that employed a variant of the precision grip in which the thumb supports the weight of the object from underneath. With the grip oriented in this way, there is no need to match grip force to surface texture and, under these conditions, there is no effect of surface texture on weight perception. In the first two experiments, the test and comparison weights were lifted successively by the same hand. In a third experiment, the effect of surface texture was replicated for sequential lifts made with separate hands. Thus, the effect is not restricted to comparisons made with the same hand.
Gathercole, S.E., Willis, C.S., BADDELEY, A.D. & EMSLIE, H. APU 3132
The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition: A test of phonological working memory.
Memory, 2, 103-127, 1994.
This article presents findings from the Children's Test of Nonword Repetition (CNRep). Normative data based on its administration to over 600 children aged between four and nine years are reported. Close developmental links are established between CNRep scores and vocabulary, reading, and comprehension skills in children during the early school years. The links between nonword repetition and language skills are shown to be consistently higher and more specific than those obtained between language skills and another simple verbal task with a significant phonological memory component, auditory digit span. The psychological mechanisms underpinning these distinctive developmental relationships between nonword repetition and language development are considered.
GOODRICH, S.J.
See Bates, C., Evans, P., Allison, G., Sonko, B., Hoare, S.,
GOODRICH, S.J. & Aspray, T. APU 3253
Bekerian, D.A. & Goodrich, S.J. APU 3281
Driver, J., Baylis, G.C., GOODRICH, S.J. & Rafal, R.D. APU 3181
ROBERTSON, I.H., Tegner, R., GOODRICH, S.J.& Wilson, C. APU 3142
WARD, R., GOODRICH, S. & Driver, J. APU 3182
Gray, J.M., Shepherd, M., McKinlay, W.W., ROBERTSON, I. H, &
Pentland, B. APU 3242
Negative symptoms in the traumatically brain-injured during the first year postdischarge, and their effect on rehabilitation status, work status and family burden.
Clinical Rehabilitation, 8, 188-197, 1994.
Approximately one year after discharge from postacute rehabilitation, 47 severely head-injured patients showed physical, cognitive, subjective, emotional and behavioural changes from their preinjury status, according to relatives/carers. Negative symptoms were prominent, and were related to employment status, overall rehabilitation status and relatives'/carers' levels of stress and psychological morbidity.
GREEN, R.E.A. APU 3071
Procedural learning study: Design and Rationale.
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the assessment and rehabilitation of brain-damaged patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action, pp. 119-131, Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
This chapter describes the pilot study of a European Community Project on procedural learning. It was carried out in order to obtain a better theoretical understanding of those learning and memory functions which are preserved in anterograde amnesia. Such an understanding could help the development of rehabilitation programmes. A secondary goal of the project is to help develop clinical tools to assess the preserved memory functions of amnesic patients.
GREEN, T.R.G. APU 3217
The cognitive dimensions of information structures.
Technical Communication, Third Quarter 1994, 544-548, 1994.
A short account of 'viscosity', 'imposed guess-ahead', 'secondary notation', and other structural features that appear to determine usability of spreadsheets and similar information devices.
GREEN, T.R.G. & DOUBLEDAY, A. APU 3218
Connectionist modelling of consistency effects in task-action languages.
In R. Opperman, S. Bagnara & D. Benyon (Eds), Proceedings of ECCE-7, Sevnth European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics. Sanklt Augustin: Gesellschaft fur Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung MBH. GMB-Studien Nr 233, 1994.
We report investigations in which a simple connectionist network was trained to recognise small 'artificial languages' which exhibited various types of 'consistency', also called 'regularity'. The artificial languages we used replicated ones used in experiments in psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology and cognitive ergonomics, from which conclusions have been drawn about the form of knowledge representation - that is, what successful learners know. Our hypothesis in these studies was that the fundamental connectionist architecture, with no added machinery, already exhibits those effects which were previously thought to require explanation by much more complex theories. We show that the known phenomena can be explained under an alternative and much shallower hypothesis, in which regularity effects are located in the pattern recognition component rather than the knowledge component of the user's cognitive architecture.
See Baurén, M., GREEN, T.R.G. & Petre, M. APU 3214
Davies, S.P., Gilmore, D.J. & GREEN, T.R.G. APU 3216
HENDRY, D.G. & GREEN, T.R.G. APU 3219
HENDRY, D.G., GREEN, T.R.G., Gilmore, D. & Davies, S. APU 3220
Modugno, F.M., GREEN, T.R.G. & Myers, B. APU 3221
GROEGER, J.G. APU 3077
The working memory man: An interview with Professor Alan D Baddeley, FRS.
The Psychologist, 7 (2), 58-59, 1994.
This is a short review of the academic career of Alan Baddeley, covering his early years as a junior scientist, his time at Sussex and Stirling Universities, and his twenty years as Director of the Applied Psychology Unit.
Haggard, P., Jenner, J. & WING, A.M. APU 3184
Coordination of aimed movements in a case of unilateral cerebellar damage.
Neuropsychologia, 32, 827-846, 1994.
We have studied multi-joint arm movements in a patient with right cerebellar damage. Our patient's kinetic tremor was reduced in the absence of visual feedback, but increased when performing a concurrent cognitive task. We suggest that her kinetic tremor reflects use of a slow cortical feedback circuit for error-corrections during movement. Analysing the spatial relation between hand aperture and hand transport in prehensile movements, we found preserved strategic, trial-to-trial coordination, but impaired reactive within-trial coordination. We conclude that the proprioceptive representations provided by the normal cerebellum play an important role in coordinating multi-joint movement.
Haggard, P. & WING, A.M. APU 3185
Coordinated responses following mechanical perturbation of the arm during prehension.
Experimental Brain Research, 102, 483-494, 1995.
We have investigated how the control of hand transport and of hand aperture are coordinated in prehensile movements by delivering mechanical perturbations to the hand transport component and looking for coordinated adjustments in hand aperture. An electric actuator attached to the subject's right arm randomly pulled the subject backwards, away from the target, or pushed them towards it, during a quarter of the experimental trials. A compensatory adjustment of hand aperture followed the immediate, mechanical effects of the perturbation of hand transport. The adjustment appeared to return the subject towards a stereotyped spatial relation between hand aperture and hand transport. These spatial patterns suggest how the two components may be coordinated during prehension. A simple model of this coordination, based on coupled position feedback systems, is presented.
Halligan, P., ROBERTSON, I.H., Pizzamiglio, L., Hömberg, V.,
Weber, E. & Bergego, C. APU 3076
The assessment and classification of visual inattention after right hemisphere damage.
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the Assessment and Rehabilitation of Brain-damaged Patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action , pp. 73-78. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
In this paper, evidence for a range of different patterns and dissociations in the syndrome of unilateral neglect is presented, suggesting that this is not a homogeneous disorder.
Happel, B.L.M. & MURRE, J.M.J. APU 3188
The design and evolution of modular neural network architectures.
Neural Networks, 7, 985-1004, 1994.
To investigate the relations between structure and function in both artificial and natural neural networks, we present a series of simulations and analyses with modular neural networks (CALM). We suggest a number of design principles in the form of explicit ways in which neural modules can cooperate in recognition tasks. A number of small-scale simulation studies shows how intermodule connectivity patterns implement 'neural assemblies' (Hebb, 1949) that induce a particular category structure in the network. Learning and categorization improves as the induced categories are more compatible with the structure of the task domain. In addition to structural compatibility, two other principles of design are proposed that underlie information processing in interactive activation networks: replication and recurrence. Because a general theory for relating network architectures to specific neural functions does not exist, we extend the biological metaphor of neural networks, by applying genetic algorithms (a biocomputing method for search and optimization based on natural selection and evolution) to search for optimal modular network architectures for learning a visual categorization task. The best performing network architectures reproduced some of the overall characteristics of the natural visual system, such as the organization of coarse and fine processing of stimuli in separate pathways. A potentially important result is that a genetically defined initial architecture cannot only enhance learning and recognition performance, but it can also induced a system to better generalize its learned behaviour to instances never encountered before. This may explain why for many vital learning tasks in organisms only a minimal exposure to relevant stimuli is necessary.
Harrison, M., BLANDFORD, A.E. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3124
The requirements engineering of user freedom.
In F. Paterno (Ed.), The Design, Specification and Verification of Interactive Systems, Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 267-278, 1995
In this paper we explore properties of interactive systems that contribute to a notion of "freedom" in the interaction. These notions include initiative, potential, history and invariance. We use Interaction Framework to describe these properties. Our aim is two fold: to provide an unambiguous reference for psychologists; and to provide a design representation for system engineers. We wish to provide a notational framework which is neutral with respect to user or computer system details so that appropriate interactional requirements may be employed in the design and understanding of interactive systems.
Heath, C., Luff, P. & SELLEN, A.J. APU 3236
Reconfiguring media space.
In S. Emmott & D. Travis, The Information Superhighway: Multimedia Drivers, New York: Academic Press, in press.
Despite considerable research and development in the design of media spaces, these technologies have yet to meet the hopes of their early proponents. We suggest that some of the problems may lie in fundamental misconceptions that have informed their design, the most important being the mistaken idea that collaborative work is accomplished face-to-face. Drawing on our own studies of media spaces, analyses of work in real-world settings, and some experiments with new kinds of configurations, we suggest an alternative orientation for audio-visual technologies - one that aims to support in situ work and interaction.
Heemskerk, J.N.H., Hoekstra, J., MURRE, J.M.J., Kemna, L.H.J.G. &
Hudson, P.T.W. APU 3187
The BSP400: A modular neurocomputer.
Microprocessors and Microsystems, 18, 67-78, 1994.
This paper discusses the main architectural issues, the implementation, and the performance of a parallel neurocomputer: the Brain-Style Processor or BSP400. The design principles are hardware modularity, simple processors, and in situ (local) learning. The BSP400 consists of 25 modules (boards) each containing 16 simple 8-bit single-chip computers (i.e., 400 in total). The system supports local activation and learning rules. The ability to communicate activations directly to the outside world in real-time makes the BSP400 suited for real-world applications. The paper further describes implementation of the CALM algorithm. Even with the very slow (1 MHz) processors it is able to achieve speeds of 6.4 million connections per second.
HENDRY, D.G. & GREEN, T.R.G. APU 3219
Creating, comprehending, and explaining spreadsheets: A cognitive interpretation of what discretionary users think of the spreadsheet model.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 40, 1033-1065, 1994.
Ten discretionary users were asked to recount their experiences with spreadsheets and to explain how one of their own sheets worked. The transcripts of the interviews are summarized to reveal the key strengths and weaknesses of the spreadsheet model. There are significant discrepancies between these findings and the opinions of experts expressed in the HCI literature, which have tended to emphasize the strengths of spreadsheets and to overlook the weaknesses. In general, the strengths are such as allow quick gratification of immediate needs, while the weaknesses are such as make subsequent debugging and interpretation difficult, suggesting a situated view of spreadsheet usage in which present needs outweigh future needs. We conclude with an attempt to characterize three extreme positions in the design space of information systems: the incremental addition system, the explanation system and the transcription system. The spreadsheet partakes of the first two. We discuss how to improve its explanation facilities.
HENDRY, D.G., GREEN, T.R.G., Gilmore, D. & Davies, S. APU 3220
Improving the communicability of spreadsheet designs: Annotating with descriptive tags.
Psychology of Programming Interest Group Annual Workshop (Paris, 1992), 1992.
Describes the use of coloured regions to indicate user's groupings (see APU 2914 for a fuller description).
Hodges, J., PATTERSON, K. & Tyler, L. APU 3175
Loss of semantic memory: Implications for the modularity of mind.
Cognitive Neuropsychology, 11, 505-542, 1994.
We report a patient, PP, with semantic dementia who was studied longitudinally over two years. During this period she showed a progressive and profound loss of semantic memory affecting factual knowledge, vocabulary, and object knowledge via all sensory modalities. In the face of this near total dissolution of semantic memory, we have addressed the issue of the fate of other cognitive processes. Our findings suggest that nonverbal problem solving, auditory verbal and spatial short-term memory, the high-level visuo-perceptual abilities involved in object constancy, and some basic syntactic processes may operate independently of semantic memory and are therefore independent cognitive modules. In contrast, the integrity of both the phonological representations of words used to produce speech and the representations (or structural descriptions) used to recognise familiar objects appear ultimately to depend on semantic memory.
Hodges, J.R. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3272
Is semantic memory consistently impaired early in the course of Alzheimer's disease? Neuroanatomical and diagnostic implications.
Neuropsychologia, 33, 441-459, 1995
To establish whether semantic memory is consistently impaired in patients with very mild dementia of Alzheimer's type (DAT), we assessed episodic and semantic memory in 52 patients with DAT who were divided into three sub-groups according to dementia severity on the Mini-Mental State Examination (minimal >23, mild 17-23 and moderate <17) and 24 matched controls. The minimal group showed impairment on the following semantic memory measures: category fluency, naming of line drawings, naming to verbal description, answering semantic feature questions and a non-verbal picture-picture matching task (the Pyramids and Palm Trees Test). The mild and moderate groups showed additional deficits on picture sorting and word-picture matching tests, respectively. Within the minimal and mild groups there was, however, considerable heterogeneity. While some patients showed a consistent impairment across all of the semantic memory tests, others were impaired on only a subset of these tests and a few even performed flawlessly. In contrast, all patients showed a profound deficit in episodic memory: delayed recall of new verbal and non-verbal material appears to be a particularly sensitive marker of early DAT. These data are in keeping with recent neuropathological studies demonstrating that the transentorhinal region is consistently involved at a very early stage. Lesions in this site will cause a functional disconnection of the hippocampus, and hence a profound episodic memory disorder. The fact that many, but not all, patients with early disease also show impairment of semantic memory implies that damage to this region is not sufficient to produce consistent disruption of semantic memory. This occurs, we suggest, only when the pathology extends to the temporal neocortex proper.
Hodges, J.R., Graham, N. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3271
Charting the progression in semantic dementia: Implications for the organisation of semantic memory.
Memory, in press.
A patient, JL, with the syndrome of semantic dementia was assessed longitudinally over a two-year period. The data presented here address the controversy concerning the hierarchical organisation of semantic memory. On a range of category fluency tests, when first tested JL was just within the normal range on the broadest categories of animals and household items, but was virtually unable to produce any instances of specific categories such as breeds of dog or musical instruments. Longitudinal fluency data for the animal category demonstrate that while JL continued to produce the most prototypic responses (cat, dog, horse), other animal labels dropped out early from his vocabulary. On the picture sorting tests from our semantic memory test battery, JL's discrimination between living things and manmade objects was preserved for a substantial time in conjunction with a marked decline in his sorting ability for more specific categories, particularly features or attributes (e.g., size, foreign-ness or ferocity of animals). An analysis of naming responses to the 260 Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures on four occasions suggests a progressive loss of the features of semantic representations that enable discrimination between specific category instances. There was a progressive decline in circumlocutory and category co-ordinate responses with a rise in broad superordinate and cross-category errors. The latter are of particular theoretical interest; on session I, all cross-category errors respected the living/manmade distinction, but by session IV almost half of such errors failed to respect this distinction. The emergence of category prototypes was another notable feature, particularly in the living domain: at one stage, land (or four-legged) animals were all named either cat, dog or horse. By contrast, within the manmade domain, items were frequently described in terms of their broad use or function, until eventually no defining features were produced. These findings are discussed in the context of competing theories of semantic organisation.
HOLDSWORTH, J.
See Robinson, A., HOLDSWORTH, J., PATTERSON, R.D. &
Fallside, F. APU 3159
HOUGHTON, G. & Tipper, S.P. APU 3149
A model of inhibitory mechanisms in selective attention.
In D. Dagenbach & T. Carr (Eds), Inhibitory Processes in Attention, Memory and Language. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 53-112, 1994.
This chapter proposes that the means by which internal goal states mediate the interaction between perception and action is the mechanism of selective attention. A preliminary neural network model of certain aspects of voluntary selective attention, along with a general view regarding the central purpose ("why") and method ("how") of selective attention, is developed. General theoretical issues (locus and function of selective attention, amplification and inhibition in selective attention) are discussed. The model deals with the dynamics of selective attention, simulating selection and interference, negative priming, and inhibition of return.
HOWES, A. APU 3066
A model of the acquisition of menu knowledge by exploration.
In B. Adelson, S. Dumais & J. Olson (Eds), Human Factors in Computing Systems ("Celebrating Interdependence", Proceedings of CHI '94 Conference, Boston, MA., 1994) pp. 445-451. New York: ACM, 1994.
This paper reports a mechanism that learns how to use a menu structure by exploration. The model, called Ayn, starts without any knowledge of the menus but when given a goal, explores and tries out options until the goal has been achieved. During this process it constructs a long-term, recognition-oriented, memory of its behaviour so that on future occasions it will be able to achieve the same goal without exploration. The mechanism captures three aspects of human behaviour: it learns whilst interacting with the device, it speeds up with practice, and it acquires display-based knowledge.
HOWES, A. APU 3117
Cognitive modelling: Experiences in human-computer interaction.
In T.L. Nyerges (Ed.), Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction for Geographic Information Systems. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, in press.
This paper collates the experience of cognitive modelling in Human-Computer Interaction into a view of why and how cognitive models should be constructed. Early promise that cognitive modelling would aid the design of computer interfaces has seen only minimal success. The view taken here is that cognitive modelling should be attempted only if the researcher's primary objective is to increase understanding of user psychology. Practical applications may follow from an increased understanding but this is not guaranteed. If a cognitive model is to be constructed, then the researcher has the option of using one of a number of types of description. Two are illustrated with example models from the Human-Computer Interaction literature.
HOWES, A. APU 3178
An introduction to cognitive modelling in human-computer interaction.
In A. Monk & N. Gilbert (Eds), Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction. London Academic Press, in press.
One of the research goals of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is to construct cognitive models of how people interact with computer applications. Cognitive models describe the psychological processes and knowledge that people utilise when they are engaged in the complex range of tasks that computer interfaces present. This paper is an introduction to the study of cognitive modelling in Human-Computer Interaction. It attempts to describe cognitive models of HCI phenomena relative to a theoretical framework that is motivated by the broader study of cognition. This analysis describes the behavioural properties, knowledge requirements, representations and algorithms, learning heuristics, and cognitive architectures used in the space of models.
HULL, A.J.
See WRIGHT, P., LICKORISH, A., HULL, A.J. & Ummelen, N. APU 3223
Humphreys, G., Romani, C., Olson, A., Riddoch, M.J. &
DUNCAN, J. APU 3255
Non-spatial extinction following lesions of the parietal lobe in humans.
Nature, 372, 357-359, 1994.
Efficient behaviour in the visual environment requires selection between stimuli competing for control of action. Many current models of selection are spatial: relevant objects are chosen through attention to their locations. Strong evidence for spatial selection is unilateral extinction following lesions of the parietal lobe. Though patients may identify a single stimulus presented in their contralesional field, they can fail to detect the same stimulus when a competing stimulus occurs simultaneously on the ipsilesional side. Here we demonstrate that extinction need not be spatial in nature, but may be determined by characteristics of the objects to be selected. In two patients with parietal lobe lesions and poor spatial localisation, pictures extinguished words and closed shapes extinguished open shapes. This object-based extinction indicates the existence of biases within non-spatial selection mechanisms which are independent of biases produced by spatial selection mechanisms. We suggest that selection of objects for action requires binding together the winners produced by the independent competitive biases for selection within distinct neural areas concerned with object properties and space.
Irino, T. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3153
A theory of asymmetric intensity enhancement in non-simultaneous masking.
In Proceedings of the Third International Conferences on Spoken Language Processing (Yokohama, Japan), pp. 1955-1958, 1994.
A theory of asymmetric intensity enhancement around acoustic transients is presented. Experiments with ramped and damped tones (Patterson 1994a, b) have shown that reversing an asymmetric envelope changes the timbre of the sound. A 'delta-gamma' filter with thresholding produces asymmetric intensity enhancement around transients that can explain the experimental results obtained with damped and ramped tones. If we assume that the onset of a sound is more important perceptually than what comes shortly thereafter, then this onset information can be enhanced by the delta-gamma process. Nonsimultaneous masking experiments were also performed but between subject variability precluded explanation by the delta-gamma theory.
Jadresic, D., Riccio, M., Hawkins, D.A., WILSON, B.,
Shanson, D.C. & Thompson, C. APU 3239
Long-term impact of HIV diagnosis on mood and substance use - St Stephen's cohort study.
International Journal of STD and AIDS, 5, 248-252, 1994.
Twenty HIV positive and 68 HIV negative subjects were assessed by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and by the Alcohol and Drugs Frequency Schedule immediately prior to notification of their HIV serostatus and 6 months after serodiagnosis. The 2 groups did not differ significantly in levels of anxiety or depression at baseline or follow-up. There were borderline levels of pathological anxiety prior to notification of HIV serostatus in both groups. The drop to normal levels of anxiety which had occurred by follow-up was significant in the HIV positive group. About a third of subjects in both groups were regularly making use of alcohol and/or drugs, both at baseline and follow-up. Mean levels of weekly alcohol intake for both groups ranged from about 20 to 30 units per week. The drugs most commonly used (in any frequency) were nitrates ('poppers') and cannabis.
JEANES, R.
See WILKINS, A.J., Evans, B., Brown, J., Busby, A., Wingfield, A.,
JEANES, R. & Bald, J. APU 3161
Kabbash, P., Buxton, W. & SELLEN, A.J. APU 3225
Two-handed input in a compound task.
In B. Adelson, S. Dumais & J. Olson (Eds), Human Factors in Computing Systems ("Celebrating Independence" - Proceedings of CHI '94 Conference), pp. 417-423, New York: ACM, 1994.
Four techniques for performing a compound drawing/color selection task were studied: a unimanual technique, a bimanual technique where different hands controlled independent subtasks, and two other bimanual techniques in which the action of the right hand depended on that of the left hand. We call this latter class of two-handed technique "asymmetric dependent," and predict that because tasks of this sort most closely conform to bimanual tasks in the everyday world, they would give rise to the best performance. Results showed that one of the asymmetric bimanual techniques, called the Toolglass technique, did indeed give rise to the best overall performance. Reasons for the superiority of this technique are discussed in terms of their implications for design. These are contrasted with other kinds of two-handed techniques, and it is shown how, if designed inappropriately, two hands can be worse than one.
Kapur, N., Barker, S., Burrows, E., Ellison, D., Brice, J., Illis, L.,
Scholey, K., Colburn, C., WILSON, B.A. & Loates, M. APU 3111
Herpes Simplex Encephalitis: Long-term MRI and neuropsychological profile.
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 57, 1334-1342, 1994.
The first comprehensive in vivo documentation of the long term profile of pathological and spared tissue is described in a group of 10 patients with a diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis, who were left with memory difficulties as a major residual sequel of their condition. Using MRI protocol we established: (1) unilateral or bilateral hippocampal damage never occurred in isolation, and was often accompanied by damage to the parahippocampus, the amygdala, specific temporal lobe gyri, and the temporal poles; (2) the insula was always abnormal; (3) neocortical temporal lobe damage was usually unilateral or asymmetric. It never occurred in isolation, and was invariably associated with more medial pathological changes; (4) anterior and inferior temporal lobe gyri were damaged more often and more severely than posterior and superior temporal lobe gyri; (5) pronounced abnormality was often present in the substantia innominata (region of the basal forebrain/anterior perforated substance); (6) there was evidence of significant abnormality in the fornix; (7) there was evidence of damage to the mammillary bodies; (8) thalamic nuclei were affected in around 50% of cases, with damage usually unilateral; (9) frontal lobe damage was present in a few patients, and affected medial areas more than dorsolateral areas; (10) there was some involvement of the striatum, although this was usually unilateral and mild; (11) there was usually limited involvement of the cingulate gyrus and of the parietal and occipital lobes; (12) the cerebellum and brain stem were never damaged.
Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenité, D., Dekker, E., Spekreijse, G.,
Brekelmans, G., WILKINS, A.J. & van Emde Boas, W. APU 3165
The role of television, video games and computers in epileptic photosensitive patients: Preliminary results.
Epilepsia (Abstract only), in press.
The brief abstract describes encephalographic studies of patients with photosensitive epilepsy, reporting their sensitivity to a variety of common sources of epileptogenic stimulation.
KEARNS, R.K. APU 3248
Prelexical speech processing in mono- and bilinguals.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1993.
This thesis investigates the degree to which prelexical speech perception processes are language universal. Cutler, Mehler, Norris and Segui (1986) suggested that at least one aspect of prelexical processing, speech segmentation, is language-specific. The segmentation of French and English by listeners at varying degrees of bilingualism was investigated in five experiments using the syllable-monitoring paradigm. Listeners appeared to avoid applying inappropriate language-specific segmentation routines when listening to non-native input. However, their performance was not like that of monolinguals. Cutler, Mehler, Norris and Segui (1992) suggested that bilinguals can command only one language-specific segmentation routine, and that this is related to "language dominance". Balanced-bilingual and monolingual performance in speech-recognition tasks under difficult listening conditions were directly compared. Relative performance in the two languages by bilinguals varied across tasks, suggesting that dominance is multifaceted. A universal view of prelexical processing in mono- and bilinguals is proposed. It is concluded that bilinguals differ from monolinguals mainly in the quantity and type of linguistic information, rather than in the nature of the processing procedures, which they have available to them.
KOLODNY, J. APU 3083
Conscious and unconscious processes in learning and memory retrieval.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1993.
Considerable research over the past three decades has demonstrated the existence of dissociable conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) learning and memory processes. This dissertation is devoted to understanding the role of these processes in several learning paradigms. The initial investigations explored unconscious processing on the Serial Reaction Time learning task. The findings indicated that the learning may involve learning a simple response bias, as opposed to more complex knowledge structures as had been assumed previously. The rest of the dissertation focuses upon the memory processes subserving concept formation, and in particular, certain types of classification learning. A series of experiments examined the capacity of subjects to learn to classify paintings on the basis of artistic style. Using populations with conscious recollective ability that is declining (elderly adults), or negligible (anterograde amnesic patients), it was shown that intentional retrieval may be essential for such a task. However, a final experiment revealed that amnesic patients were able to learn to categorise sets of dot-patterns generated on the basis of different underlying "parent" patterns. It is argued that the two sets of stimuli differ in their semantic content, and resulting memorability: It is concluded that conscious retrieval is not essential for simple category learning, but may play a crucial role with more complex material.
KOLODNY, J. APU 3087
Memory processes in classification learning: An investigation of amnesic performance in categorization of dot patterns and artistic style.
Psychological Science, 5, 164-169, 1994.
The role of conscious memory retrieval in category learning was investigated, using amnesic patients and matched control subjects on two classification tasks. Subjects attempted to learn to categorize both dot patterns and the paintings of three Italian Renaissance artists. The amnesic patients were capable of normal classification performance on the dot-pattern stimuli, but were severely impaired at learning to categorize the paintings. On tests of recognition of the classification stimuli, the control subjects were very accurate on the paintings, and only moderately accurate on the dot patterns; the amnesic patients were poorer than the control subjects on both item types, though they were above chance in their recognition of the paintings. These data suggest that amnesic patients are capable of simple, perceptually based category learning, but that richer, more complex stimuli may demand memory retrieval processes that they lack.
Lamming, M., Brown, P., Carter, K., Eldridge, M., Flynn, M.,
Louie, G., Robinson, P. & SELLEN, A.J. APU 3232
The design of a human memory prosthesis.
The Computer Journal, 37, 153-163, 1994.
Memory is the forgotten problem of office systems research. We believe that a new class of applications, which we call 'memory prostheses', are needed when memory problems arise. We expect these systems to provide help with a range of everyday memory problems, including: finding files, papers and notes (in whatever medium they are expressed), recalling names of people and places, procedures and lists, remembering to perform tasks. A memory prosthesis will be sensitive to its environment and able to record data automatically about its user's activities. These data can later be retrieved to help users remember things they have forgotten especially things they did not know they would need to remember. This sensitivity to the environment will also enable the memory prosthesis to issue context-sensitive reminders of things that the user intended to do. In this paper we present guidelines for the design of memory prostheses, drawing on studies that have been carried out on the psychological basis of memory problems in the workplace and on technological possibilities for dealing with these problems. These guidelines define this new class of application, provide the basis for our continuing work in support of the problems of everyday life and offer a new challenge for computer systems research.
LAVIE, N. APU 3180
Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, in press.
This study proposes a resolution to the early and late selection debate by proposing that perceptual load of relevant information determines the selective processing of irrelevant information. This hypothesis was tested in three studies, all employed a variation of the response competition paradigm to measure irrelevant processing when load in the relevant processing was varied. Perceptual load was manipulated by the relevant display set-size, or by different processing-requirements for identical displays. These included the requirement to process conjunctions versus isolated features; and the requirement to perform simple detection of a character's presence versus difficult identification of its size and position. Distractors' interference was found only under the low load conditions. Since the distractor was usually clearly distinct from the target, I conclude that physical separation is not a sufficient condition for selective perception; overloading perception is also required. This allows a compromise between early and late selection views, and resolves apparent discrepancies in previous work.
LAVIE, N. & Tsal, Y. APU 3137
Perceptual load as a major determinant of selection in visual attention.
Perception and Psychophysics, 56, 183-197, 1994.
In this paper, we propose that the debate concerning the locus of attentional selection can be resolved by specifying the conditions under which early selection is possible. In the first part, we present a theoretical discussion that integrates aspects from structural and capacity approaches to attention and suggest that perceptual load is a major factor in determining the locus of selection. In the second part, we present a literature review that examines the conditions influencing the processing of irrelevant information. This review supports the conclusion that a clear physical distinction between relevant and irrelevant information is not sufficient to prevent irrelevant processing; early selection also requires that the perceptual load of the task be sufficiently high to exceed the upper limit of available attentional resources.
LEAFHEAD, K.M.
See YOUNG, A.W., LEAFHEAD, K.M. & Szulecka, T.K. APU 3243
LEE, W.O. APU 3080
Incremental change in the development of expertise in using interactive systems.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1993.
This thesis investigates why computing skills evolve in the way they do and seeks to understand what the nature of expertise is in using interactive computer systems. It is argued that a qualitative understanding of skill evolution in HCI is required which emphasises users' choice and change in the course of skill evolution. Three major areas where choice and change are critical were examined. An initial set of studies examined users' choice in what system functionality they learn and how this choice changed as a function of experience, instructive advice, and display factors. A second set of studies examined changes in the processing of different forms of visual feedback and their effects on the level of slip errors as users became experienced. A third set of studies examined changes in knowledge as a result of different environmental resources and constraints. A framework is developed to provide a structured analysis of qualitative change in users' skill evolution. This framework focuses on cognitive dynamics and upon how knowledge is processed to satisfy particular task demands. The thesis concludes by applying the framework to provide a synthesis of the findings and to assist the transfer of knowledge to the application domain.
LICKORISH, A.
See WRIGHT, P. & LICKORISH, A. APU 3222
WRIGHT, P., LICKORISH, A., HULL, A.J. & Ummelen, N. APU 3223
LLOYD, C.A. APU 3204
Empirical investigations of self-regulatory models of behaviour and their implications for clinical depression.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1993.
Models of depression developed on the view that behaviour is goal-directed and self-regulated are reviewed. The Degenerated Intention Hypothesis (Kuhl and Helle, 1986) proposed that depression is maintained by the preservation in working memory of cognitions relating to an unrelinquished intention. However, two studies in this thesis failed to replicate the Incompleted Intention Paradigm (Goschke and Kuhl, 1991) which had provided empirical support. An alternative model of the self-regulation of behaviour proposes that one's self-concept comprises many different selves and predicts that the accessibility of intention-related cognitions in working memory is a function of the self (mode) which dominates working memory at any one time. Pilot studies using sentence completion measures provided initial evidence for work- and mother- modes in working mothers. Three further studies used a two-alternative forced-choice measure and a contextual priming measure of the accessibility of intentions in working memory. Two studies indicated that mothers and employees showed greater sensitivity to intentions which were congruent with their respective roles. However, the third study showed no effect of an imagery manipulation of mother versus work mode on the accessibility of intentions in working mothers. The application of this theoretical and methodological approach to depression is explored given these results.
See TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J., PROCTOR, L.,
LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
MACLEOD, A.K. & WILLIAMS, J.M.G. APU 3208
The cognitive psychology of parasuicidal behaviour.
In P. Crepet, G. Ferrari, S. Platt & M. Bellini (Eds), Suicidal Behaviour in Europe: Recent Research Findings. pp. 217-223, Rome: John Libbey, 1992.
The accumulating evidence of the effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy for depression has provided considerable impetus to extending its range of application. As one of the most serious of psychological problems, suicidal behaviour is one area where cognitive-behavioural approaches would be hoped to yield a successful intervention. There is preliminary evidence that this is indeed the case. Salkovsksis, Atha and Storer (1990), for example, have recently reported success in the treatment of repeated suicide attempters using a cognitive-behavioural problem-solving approach. Parallel with developing effective interventions is the separate task of understanding how those interventions work. By describing the cognitive processes operating in people who are suicidal, interventions will then be able to target more accurately those particular cognitive deficits which contribute to suicidal behaviour. A range of experimental studies have revealed certain cognitive characteristics of suicidal patients. Three main areas of functioning have been found to be affected in suicidal groups: memory; future-oriented thinking; and problem solving abilities.
MACLEOD, A.K., WILLIAMS, J.M.G. & Linehan, M.M. APU 3211
New developments in the understanding and treatment of suicidal behaviour.
Behavioural Psychotherapy, 20, 193-218, 1992.
Recent developments in the understanding, assessment and treatment of suicidal behaviour are reviewed. The accumulated social and demographic knowledge of suicidal populations has proved to be clinically useful in shaping the general level of concern, but at the individual level an understanding of the psychological processes involved in suicidal behaviour is required. Studies examining psychological processes in parasuicidal groups have revealed a number of deficits, including poor interpersonal problem solving, hopelessness about the future, and reduced ability to regulate affect. Research has also begun to look at some of the processes underlying these deficits, such as over-general retrieval of autobiographical memories and reduced anticipation of specific positive experiences. The clinical picture is now more optimistic, with therapies, such as Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, which focus on using problem solving strategies with those clients who are most vulnerable to repeat parasuicide episodes, producing demonstrable delays in parasuicide and reduced risk of repetition. The importance of the relationship between research and clinical practice is emphasized.
See WILLIAMS, J.M.G. & MACLEOD, A.K. APU 3207
MARCEL, A.J.
See Bermùdez, J., MARCEL, A.J. & Eilan, N. (Eds) APU 3112
Eilan, N., MARCEL, A.J. & Bermùdez, J. APU 3114
MARSLEN-WILSON, W., Tyler, L.K., Waksler, R. & Older, L. APU 3084
Morphology and meaning in the English mental lexicon.
Psychological Review, 101, 3-33, 1994.
The authors investigated the lexical entry for morphologically complex words in English. Six experiments, using a cross-modal repetition priming task, asked whether the lexical entry for derivationally suffixed and prefixed words is morphologically structured and how this relates to the semantic and phonological transparency of the surface relationship between stem and affix. There was clear evidence for morphological decomposition of semantically transparent forms. This was independent of phonological transparency, suggesting that morphemic representations are phonologically abstract. Semantically opaque forms, in contrast, behave like monomorphemic words. Overall, suffixed and prefixed derived words and their stems prime each other through shared morphemes in the lexical entry, except for pairs of suffixed forms, which show a cohort-based interference effect.
MATHEWS, A. APU 3135
Selective memory for emotional information.
In D. Herrmann, M. Johnson, C. McEvoy, C. Hertzog & P. Hertel (Eds), Proceedings of the Third Practical Aspects of Memory Conference. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press.
(1) People selectively encode emotional features of events, at the expense of other competing aspects occurring simultaneously, which may be ignored or forgotten. (2) There is some evidence that emotional encoding begins at an early, non-conscious stage. Brief presentations of angry faces and threatening words, masked so that subjects are unable to report their presence, still cause physiological and interference responses. (3) Detection of an emotional event results in attention being centered at the location associated with greatest emotional significance. This attentional effect is associated with faster detection, and better perceptual memory, for information at that location. (4) It is typically easier to recall the gist of an emotional event than to recall a similar neutral event, and this advantage tends to strengthen over time. We believe that this memory advantage is due (at least in part) to more extensive elaborative rehearsal. (5) Individual differences powerfully influence both the ease with which emotional cues attract attention, and the extent that subjects engage in elaborative rehearsal. Thus, selective emotional encoding depends on an interaction between type of event and the individual concerned.
MATHEWS, A. & MILROY, R. APU 3097
Effects of priming and suppression of worry.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 843-850, 1994.
High and low worriers were primed by a short period of worry, suppression of worry, or the same period of non-worrying thought. Analysis of thoughts during the period following showed that worriers had more than twice as many unpleasant thoughts as did controls, across all prior conditions. Priming condition had little effect on this difference, although worry suppression was associated with a slight increase in the frequency of neutral or pleasant thoughts in high worriers, and a slight decrease in controls. These results are taken as evidence against the hypothesis that suppression of upsetting thoughts increases their intrusive quality, and thereby contributes to anxiety disorders.
MATHEWS, A. & MILROY, R. APU 3098
Processing of emotional meaning of anxiety.
Cognition and Emotion, 8, 535-553, 1994.
Previous research has indicated that anxiety and depressive states do not lead to speeding of lexical decisions for mood-congruent words. Theoretical considerations, and some data, suggest that such mood-congruent speeding effects should be more apparent in affective decisions. In three experiments we found no evidence that anxious subjects are faster when making affective decisions for congruent (threatening) words, whether or not these subjects had been recently exposed to the same words. It is concluded that the processes involved in the attentional and interpretive processing of threatening stimuli by anxious subjects are different from those involved when making a conscious decision about emotional meaning.
MATHEWS, A., Mogg, K., Kentish, J. & Eysenck, M. APU 3096
Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in generalized anxiety disorder.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 293-303, 1995.
Measures of attention and implicit memory for threatening words were obtained from anxious patients before and after psychological treatment, and compared with data from non-anxious control subjects collected over the same period. Findings confirmed the expectation that the presence of threatening distractors would be associated with greater interference with the performance of anxious patients than with that of controls, in both colour-naming and attentional search tasks, but failed to confirm the previous finding of related differences in priming on a word completion task. Treatment significantly reduced selective interference effects in anxious patients, and abolished evidence of differences between the treated patients and controls. It is suggested that cognitive bias effects in anxiety may either depend on state factors alone, or may represent a more enduring individual difference that becomes apparent only when vulnerable individuals are primed by mood state or stressful events.
MAY, J. APU 3195
The part-whole problem in perception.
Electronic document, AMODEUS Pres 4, October; pub/amodeus/usemod/pres4.hqx @ ftp.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk, 1993.
This is a computerised presentation illustrating how people perceive visual features as 'parts', or combine them into 'wholes'. It presents some visual illusions, gestalt grouping effects, and emergent features, in the context of computer interface displays. The nature of the effects, and the role of propositional expectations in constraining their use, is described them in terms of the ICS (Interacting Cognitive Subsystems) theoretical framework. The presentation requires a colour Macintosh.
MAY J. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3196
Modelling the user's interpretation of dynamic displays.
AMODEUS: Working paper UM/WP9; May 1993, pp. 28. Constituent part of scientific deliverable D2 associated with APU 2963, 1993.
Computer displays which change dynamically are, in principle, no different to films where different shots are cut together. In cutting film, it is necessary to follow rules-of-thumb to produce an 'acceptable' sequence that does not confuse the viewer. We discuss these rules, and describe a cognitive model of film comprehension that can be used to understand why the rules work. This model can be tested empirically, and can be used to guide the design of interactive computer displays.
MAY, J. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3283
Towards supportive evaluation during design.
Interacting with Computers, in press.
The relevance of HCI theory to industry is being questioned, and the emphasis is shifting away from providing generalised support to systematic evaluation methods, typified by Cognitive Walkthroughs (CW). The evidence suggests that CW has not proved as effective as hoped. We examine this evidence, and argue that the problem lies not with CW or its underlying theory in particular, but with its limited scope and in the increasing dissociation of an evaluation method from its theoretical foundation. Evaluation methods retaining a theoretical element would provide the necessary conceptual support to enable designers to identify, comprehend and resolve usability problems, and would also be less limited than dissociated evaluation methods in their breadth and depth of application. We present an ambitious vision of a `supportive evaluation' tool, and outline Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA), the methodology upon which a proof- of- concept tool has been based. To illustrate how CTA supports the identification and resolution of usability problems, we describe three brief design scenarios, and discuss the role of cognitive modelling in the context of design.
MAY, J. & BARNARD, P.J. APU 3282
Supportive evaluation of interface design.
In Proceedings of the First Workshop on Cognitive Modelling and Interface Design, Vienna, 14-17 Dec 1994, 1994.
Growing disenchantment with the relevance of HCI theory to design is leading to a shift of emphasis in methodologies. The field is moving towards the provision of systematic evaluation methods, typified by Cognitive Walkthroughs (CW). Evidence is now accumulating that CW has not proved as effective as hoped. We argue that the problem lies not with CW or its underlying theory in particular, but with its dissociation of an evaluation method from its theoretical foundation. Evaluation methods retaining a theoretical element provide the necessary conceptual support to enable designers to identify, comprehend and resolve usability problems. They would also be less limited than dissociated evaluation methods in their breadth and depth of application. To illustrate how supportive evaluation could support the identification and resolution of usability problems, we describe three brief design scenarios, and discuss the role of cognitive modelling in the context of design.
See BADDELEY, A.D. & MAY, J. APU 3250
BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3256
BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3194
BARNARD, P.J., BLANDFORD, A.E. & MAY, J. APU 3193
Duke, D., Duce, D., BARNARD, P.J., Harrison, M.D. &
MAY, J. APU 3198
TWEEDIE, L., BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3197
MAYLOR, E.A. APU 3144
Does prospective memory decline with age?
In M. Brandimonte, G. Einstein & M. McDaniel (Eds), Prospective Memory: Theory and Applications. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press.
This chapter reviews the literature on normal ageing and prospective memory. Experience and feedback accumulate with age and provide the opportunity for the elderly to develop compensatory strategies to overcome their cognitive deficits. There is some evidence that the use of external memory aids increases with age. This could account for the striking absence of age deficits in (i) self-rated ability in everyday prospective memory tasks, and (ii) naturalistic prospective memory studies conducted outside the laboratory. Consistent with their declining cognitive abilities, the elderly are less able to perform as well as the young under laboratory conditions, where the use of external memory aids is either excluded or controlled by the experimenter. The effect of age is particularly evident in time-based prospective memory tasks in which environmental support is low and self-initiated activity is high. Age deficits are less apparent in event-based tasks, and may be absent altogether if some allowance is made for the elderly's depleted processing resources by reducing the cognitive demands of the background activity. Finally, it is suggested that analysing data from repeated prospective memory tasks in terms of initial performance, subsequent forgetting, and subsequent recovery may prove to be a useful approach in the future.
MAYLOR, E.A. APU 3145
Effects of aging on the retrieval of common and proper names.
Facts and Research in Gerontology, in press.
Subjects aged 54-85 performed three speeded name retrieval tasks: (1) naming objects from line drawings, (2) naming famous people from photographs, and (3) naming capital cities from the names of countries. For both objects and people, older subjects produced significantly fewer correct responses and were significantly slower than younger subjects. For places, older subjects produced fewer correct responses and were slower than the younger subjects, but only the response time effect reached significance. The age differences in numbers correct were no greater for proper names (people and places) than for common names (objects). For all three tasks, the effect of age on correct response times increased from the fastest to the slowest responses. Distributions of correct response times were presented as scatterplots of the fastest to the slowest responses for the under 65s against the corresponding responses for the over 65s. The data for objects, people and places fell on a single function. Overall, there was no evidence that the name retrieval impairment with age was greater for proper names than for common names.
MAYLOR, E.A. APU 3146
Remembering versus knowing television theme tunes in middle-aged and elderly adults.
British Journal of Psychology, 86, 21-25, 1995.
Current evidence on ageing and states of awareness in memory tasks is mixed. In all cases, there is an age-related decline in memory accompanied by recollective experience (remember responses); however, for memory in the absence of recollective experience (know responses), there is no effect of age in some experiments but an increase with age in others. This paper presents data from a tune recognition experiment (Maylor, 1991) in which subjects were not explicitly asked to make remember/know decisions. Here, these states of awareness are inferred from subjects' responses. Middle-aged and elderly volunteers listened to theme tunes from television programmes; if they recognised the tune, they were asked to provide as much information about the programme as possible. Age significantly influenced remember responses (theme tune familiar plus some information about the programme reported) but not know responses (theme tune familiar but no information about the programme reported). Thus the analysis provides further converging evidence that knowing can remain invariant across manipulations that reduce the level of remembering.
MAYLOR, E.A. & Rabbitt, P.M.A. APU 3201
Investigating individual differences in a serial choice reaction time task: Use of auditory feedback and analysis of responses surrounding errors.
Journal of Motor Behavior, in press.
Subjects performed a visual four-choice reaction time (RT) task, either with or without immediate trial-by-trial feedback, with RT indicated by the pitch of an auditory tone. For each feedback condition, half of the subjects (the "high AH4" group) scored more than 50% on the AH4 test of fluid intelligence, while the remaining half scored less than 50% (the "low AH4" group). It was predicted that if low AH4 subjects were slow because they were poor at monitoring RT, they would benefit more from feedback than high AH4 subjects. This was not supported by the data: there was some beneficial effect of feedback on RT, but only for the high AH4 group. A second possibility was that individual differences would be apparent in processes such as detecting errors and controlling RT from trial-to-trial. From analyses of error rates, RT distributions, and particularly sequences of responses before and after errors, there was no evidence of qualitative differences in performance between the high and low AH4 groups. It is concluded that individual differences in this task are largely determined by information-processing rate rather than by factors such as the ability to detect errors, or to monitor and control RT.
See Cohen, G., Conway, M.A. & MAYLOR, E.A. APU 3143
Rabbitt, P., MAYLOR, E.A., McInnes, L., Bent, N. &
Moore, B. APU 3147
McDowell, I., Anderson, S., Wilson, C., Pentland, B. &
ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3099
Late rehabilitation for closed head injury: Clinical psychologists' interventions.
Clinical Rehabilitation, in press.
The rehabilitation needs addressed by clinical psychologists in a sample of closed head injured patients are described. The authors conclude that this population has a high need for the full range of clinical psychology expertise.
McKenna, P.J. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3130
Memory in schizophrenia.
In R. Campbell and M. Conway (Eds), Broken Memories. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, in press.
This chapter reviews the kind of memory disorders found in the psychiatric disorder schizophrenia from a clinical case report point of view. Three patients are presented. The first is a 35-year-old chronically hospitalised patient who shows general intellectual impairment. He also shows hints of a disproportionate poor performance on tests of memory and executive function, in the setting of widespread neuropsychological impairment. The second patient is a 30-year-old man with severe chronic schizophrenia who, however, manages to live outside the hospital. He shows evidence of an isolated memory impairment. This affects long-term memory and spares short-term memory and procedural memory. The third patient is a 32-year-old woman with a history of severe schizophrenia but who has improved latterly. She shows only minor evidence of memory impairment and few other neuropsychological deficits. However, she shows the schizophrenic phenomenon of delusional memories and delusional confabulation. Her case differs from the usual pattern of confabulation in that there is no evidence of executive deficits.
McKenna, P.J., Clare, L. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3133
Schizophrenia.
In A.D. Baddeley, B.A. Wilson & F.N. Watts (Eds), Handbook of Memory Disorders. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 273-294, 1995.
It has recently become apparent that schizophrenia is typically associated with a degree of memory impairment, which in some cases can be quite severe. The evidence for this conclusion is reviewed, and more recent work describing the functional characteristics of the memory impairment is discussed.
MCQUEEN, J.M.
See CUTLER, A., NORRIS, D.G. & MCQUEEN, J.M. APU 3065
NORRIS, D., MCQUEEN, J. & CUTLER, A. APU 3203
NORRIS, D., MCQUEEN, J. & CUTLER, A. APU 3170
MILROY, R.
See MATHEWS, A. & MILROY, R. APU 3097
MATHEWS, A. & MILROY, R. APU 3098
Modugno, F.M., GREEN, T.R.G. & Myers, B. APU 3221
Visual programming in a visual domain: A case study of cognitive dimensions.
In G. Cockton, S. Draper & G. Weir (Eds), People and Computers IX: (Proceedings of HCI `94 Conference) Cambridge: CUP, pp. 91-108, 1994.
We present a new visual programming language and environment that serves as a form of feedback and representation in a Programming by Demonstration system. The language differs from existing visual languages because it explicitly represents data objects and implicitly represents operations by changes in data objects. The system was designed to provide non-programmers with programming support for common, repetitive tasks and incorporates some principles of cognition to assist these users in learning to use it. With this in mind, we analyzed the language and its editor along cognitive dimensions. The assessment provided insight into both strengths and weaknesses of the system, prompting a number of design changes. This demonstrates how useful such an analysis can be.
Morris, R.G., Abrahams, S., BADDELEY, A.D. & Polkey, C.E. APU 3263
Visual and verbal memory following unilateral temporal lobectomy.
Neuropsychology, in press.
The study investigated the ability of Baddeley et al's (1994) 'Doors and People' memory battery to discriminate between patients with left and right unilateral temporal lobectomy (TL). Forty seven patients who had undergone the 'en bloc' resection (23 left TL and 24 right TL) were tested on the memory battery. The results show that verbal memory functioning was significantly more impaired in the left TL group, whilst visual memory was more impaired in the right TL group. Recall memory was slightly more impaired than recognition memory overall in the two patient groups. It is concluded that the test provides a neuropsychologically valid and sensitive measure of visual and verbal memory.
Moss, H.E., Tyler, L.K., PATTERSON, K. APU 3275
Exploring the loss of semantic memory in semantic dementia: Evidence from a primed monitoring study.
Neuropsychology, 9, 16-26, 1995.
We used an on-line primed monitoring study to explore the nature of semantic memory loss in a patient (PP) with semantic dementia, who showed a profound semantic impairment on a range of off-line tasks. Priming for pairs of words taken from a common category (e.g. cat-dog, spade-rake, ruby-emerald) was contrasted with that for word pairs from different categories which were related functionally (e.g. shampoo-hair, broom-floor, theatre-play). Control subjects showed robust priming for both types of semantic relation. PP, in contrast, showed a normal priming effect for the functionally related conditions but no priming for category co-ordinates. This suggests that PP's semantic memory loss cannot be explained as either one of loss of stored representations or a problem with deliberate controlled access to that information, but has elements of both for different kinds of semantic information.
MURRE, J.M.J. APU 3280
Transfer of learning in backpropagation networks and in related neural network models.
In L. Levy, D. Bairaktaris, J. Bullinaria & P. Cairns (Eds), Connectionist Models of Memory and Language London: UCL Press, in press.
First backpropagation is evaluated critically from the point of view of modelling psychological data. The rest of the paper focuses on the problem of catastrophic interference in backpropagation, and more generally on transfer of learning. It is demonstrated that backpropagation not only exhibits implausibly strong interference but also - in certain conditions - equally implausibly strong transfer of learning. This effect is named hypertransfer. Two-layer networks, learning with a Widrow-Hoff delta-rule, however, do not show implausible transfer and are in fact able to model the classic Osgood (1949) Surface of transfer of learning. This result is then generalized to a biologically plausible class of Hebbian learning rules. Implications of these results for models of memory are discussed, in particular with regard to neocortical representation of memories.
MURRE, J.M.J. APU 3186
Neurosimulators.
In M.A. Arbib (Ed), Handbook of Brain Research and Neural Networks. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, in press.
Since 1985 more than a hundred research groups have developed some form of simulator for neural networks. This chapter briefly reviews a selection of about 40 of these. A neurosimulator could be described as 'a software package created for the specific purpose of reducing the time and effort involved in solving a problem using neural networks'. Apart from saving time, it can also increase the reliability of the simulations if these are based on standard neural network paradigms (e.g., variants of backpropagation). We argue that when developing a completely new paradigm the advantages of using one of the existing neurosimulators are less clear which is evidenced by the fact that 85% of the neural network community does not use any existing simulator. A plea for increased world-wide efforts in the development concludes the article.
MURRE, J.M.J. & R. Goebel APU 3189
Connectionist models.
In T. Dijkstra & K. De Smelt (Eds), Computational Psycholinguistics: Symbolic and Subsymbolic Models of Language Processing. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, in press.
This chapter is an introduction to neural network modelling. The first section briefly describes the neural networks in the brain and the relationship between structure and function in neural networks. A number of non-learning paradigms is described: interactive activation models, Hopfield networks, and the Boltzmann Machine. Both Hebbian and error-correcting learning neural networks are described in some detail: competitive learning, perceptron learning rule, delta rule, and backpropagation. Ways in which networks can be pre-structured are also discussed. In the final section we briefly discuss the modularity of subsystems and the manipulation of symbols in connectionist networks.
See Broeder, P. & MURRE, J.M. (Eds) APU 3279
Happel, B.L.M. & MURRE, J.M.J. APU 3188
Heemskerk, J.N.H., Hoekstra, J., MURRE, J.M.J.,
Kemna, L.H.J.G. & Hudson, P.T.W. APU 3187
NIMMO-SMITH, I.
See BADDELEY, A.D., EMSLIE, H. & NIMMO-SMITH, I. APU 3134
ROBERTSON, I.H., Tegner, R. Tham, K., Lo, A. &
NIMMO-SMITH, I. APU 3261
TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J.,
PROCTOR, L., LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. &
BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
NORRIS, D. APU 3167
Shortlist: A connectionist model of continuous speech recognition.
Cognition, 52, 189-234, 1994.
Previous work has shown how a back-propagation network with recurrent connections can successfully model many aspects of human spoken word recognition (Norris, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1993). However, such networks are unable to revise their decisions in the light of subsequent context. TRACE (McClelland and Elman, 1986), on the other hand, manages to deal appropriately with following context, but only by using a highly implausible architecture that fails to account for some important experimental results. A new model is presented which displays the more desirable properties of each of these models. In contrast to TRACE the new model is entirely bottom-up and can readily perform simulations with vocabularies of tens of thousands of words.
NORRIS, D. APU 3168
A quantitative multiple-levels model of reading aloud.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 1212-1232, 1994.
A new computational model of reading aloud is described that gives a detailed quantitative account of response latency and accuracy in word naming studies. The model implements a simple multiple-levels system (T. Shallice, E.K. Warrington and R. McCarthy, 1983) in which different levels of spelling-to-sound correspondence (e.g., phoneme, rime, word) are combined in an interactive-activation network to produce a final pronunciation of the input. Naming latency is modelled as a function of the number of network cycles required to exceed the response criteria. The model's parameters are set by fitting the model to 2 sets of data. The model than makes accurate predictions of response time and error rates in studies of word frequency, regularity, and consistency. Depending on one's perspective, the model can equally well be viewed as a dual-route theory, a single-route theory, or an analogy theory.
NORRIS, D. APU 3169
Signal detection theory and modularity: On being sensitive to the power of bias models of semantic priming.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, in press.
Rhodes, Parkin and Tremewan (1993) have shown that semantic priming influences signal detection theory measures of sensitivity in visual word recognition. Following an argument presented by Farah (1989), they suggest that this is evidence that semantic information influences perceptual encoding, and that such an influence represents a violation of modularity. The present paper shows that, contrary to Farah's claim, measures of sensitivity cannot be assumed to reflect the operation of perceptual encoding. Simulations are presented to demonstrate that modular criterion-bias models of priming in which priming has no effect on perceptual encoding predict the same sensitivity effects which Rhodes et al. take as evidence against modularity.
NORRIS, D., MCQUEEN, J. & CUTLER, A. APU 3170
Competition and segmentation in spoken word recognition.
In Proceedings of the 1994 International Conference on Computer Speech and Language Processing (Yokohama, Japan), pp. 71-74, 1994.
This is an abbreviated version of APU 3203.
NORRIS, D., MCQUEEN, J. & CUTLER, A. APU 3203
Competition and segmentation in spoken word recognition.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, in press.
Spoken utterances contain few reliable cues to word boundaries, but listeners nonetheless experience little difficulty identifying words in continuous speech. We present data and simulations which suggest that this ability is best accounted for by a model of spoken word recognition combining competition between alternative lexical candidates and sensitivity to prosodic structure. In a word-spotting experiment, stress pattern effects emerged most clearly when there were many competing lexical candidates for part of the input. Thus competition between simultaneously active word candidates can modulate the size of prosodic effects, which suggests that spoken word recognition must be sensitive both to prosodic structure and to the effects of competition. A version of the Shortlist model (Norris, 1994) incorporating the Metrical Segmentation Strategy (Cutler and Norris, 1988) accurately simulates the results using a lexicon of over 25,000 words.
See CUTLER, A., NORRIS, D.G. & MCQUEEN, J.M. APU 3065
VAN OOYEN, B. APU 3215
The processing of vowels and consonants.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Leiden, 1994.
Despite large acoustic-phonetic differences, both vowels and consonants are building-blocks of words, and hence in principle equal contributors to speech processing. This thesis asks whether the process of phoneme recognition differs depending on whether the phoneme is a vowel or a consonant, and whether vowels and consonants differ in the way they function during word recognition. A series of phoneme monitoring experiments reveals that vowels tend to have longer RTs than most consonants. In addition, vowel RT is often inversely correlated with vowel duration: the longer the vowel, the faster it is detected. For consonants, no such relation is found. These findings are explained in terms of vowel variability. English vowels are both manifold and variable, and this may hinder listeners in a task that requires rapid identification of specific vowel identity. This predicts that, in a task where precise identity is not specified, listeners may treat vowels as relatively mutable segments. This idea is tested using a new paradigm, termed word reconstruction. In this, listeners turn word-like nonwords into real words by changing either one vowel or one consonant. The results indicate that listeners more readily adapt vowel identity than consonant identity in their efforts to recognise a word. Indeed, even when explicitly required to change consonants, they nevertheless "automatically" change vowels. The conclusions are that vowel identity in English is perceptually more mutable than consonant identity, and this difference is reflected in the process of word recognition.
PAGE, M.P.A.
Modelling the perception of musical sequences with self-organizing neural networks.
Connection Science, 6, 223-246, 1994.
A brief review of studies into the psychology of melody perception leads to the conclusion that melodies are represented in long-term memory as sequences of specific items, either intervals or scale-notes; the latter representation is preferred. Previous connectionist models of musical-sequence learning are discussed and criticised as models of perception. I describe the Cohen-Grossberg masking field (Cohen & Grossberg, 1987) and illustrate how it can be used to generate melodic expectations when incorporated within an adaptive resonance architecture. An improved formulation, the SONNET 1 network (Nigrin, 1990; 1992), is described in detail and modifications are suggested. The network is tested on its ability to learn short melodic phrases taken from a set of simple melodies, before being applied to the learning of the melodies themselves. I suggest mechanisms for sequence recognition and sequence recall. The advantages of this approach to sequence learning are discussed.
Note: This reports research carried out at the Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Wales, College of Cardiff
PATTERSON, K., CROOT, K. & Hodges, J. APU 3213
Speech production: Insights from a study of progressive aphasia.
In Proceedings of the International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (Yokohama, Japan,), pp. 755-758, 1994.
Neurodegenerative disease can result in a primary language disturbance typically called primary progressive aphasia, of which two distinctly different patterns have been described. Non-fluent and fluent progressive aphasia [1,2] bear some similarities to non-fluent and fluent aphasia resulting from cerebro-vascular accident (CVA), but often reveal especially clear-cut, circumscribed language deficits. In this paper, we focus on the object naming performance of two patients, one with each form of progressive aphasia. Both patients' naming showed a marked decline over a two/three-year period. The anomia of the fluent case can be explained entirely by progressive loss of features of knowledge representation for objects and words. The deficit of the nonfluent case reflects progressive difficulty in access to and retrieval from phonological representations for speech production.
PATTERSON, K., Graham, N. & Hodges, J. APU 3176
Reading in dementia of the Alzheimer's type : A preserved ability?
Neuropsychology, 8, 395-407, 1994.
The authors assessed 45 patients with a probable diagnosis of dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT), varying from minimal to moderate levels of dementia, on 3 tasks of reading aloud: (a) an extensive list of regular and exception words across a range of word frequencies, (b) the National Adult Reading Test (NART), and (c) a test of nonword reading. On the first test, the patients showed substantial effects of regularity, word frequency, and disease severity. Reading of less common words with atypical spelling-sound correspondences was significantly impaired in the moderately demented subgroup of patients and significantly correlated with measures of semantic memory for the patient group as a whole. This impaired exception word reading was attributed to the breakdown in semantic memory that occurs as the DAT disease process advances. A significant drop in performance on both the NART and nonword reading also accompanied increasing disease severity.
PATTERSON, K. & Hodges, J. APU 3177
Disorders of semantic memory.
In A.D. Baddeley, B.A. Wilson & F.N. Watts (Eds), Handbook of Memory Disorders. Chichester, Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 167-186, 1995.
This review chapter on disorders of semantic memory first, describes how the field of psychology and neuropsychology conceives of semantic memory and how to assess it; second, discusses briefly what is known about the brain regions which seem to be most critical to the maintenance of semantic memory and the types of brain diseases to which it seems to be most vulnerable; and finally reviews evidence germane to theoretical issues that are prominent in research on semantic memory.
See Hodges, J.R., Graham, N. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3271
Hodges, J.R. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3272
Hodges, J., PATTERSON, K. & Tyler, L. APU 3175
Moss, H.E., Tyler, L.K., PATTERSON, K. APU 3275
Plaut, D.C., McClelland, J.L., Seidenberg, M.S. &
PATTERSON, K. APU 3273
Price, C., Wise, R., Watson, J., PATTERSON, K., Howard, D. &
Frackowiak, R. APU 3179
STRAIN, E., PATTERSON, K. & Seidenberg, M.S. APU 3274
Wydell, T.N., Butterworth, B. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3276
PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3155
The sound of sinusoid: Spectral models.
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 96, 1409-1418, 1994.
It is commonly believed that the spectrum of a sound can be used to explain not only the pitch and loudness of that sound but also its timbre, or sound quality. This paper presents an experimental refutation of this spectral timbre claim. Listeners were presented with pairs of 'damped' and 'ramped' sinusoids and asked to choose the one whose sound quality was most like a sinusoid. The damped sinusoids were constructed by repeating a short segment (25 ms) of a sinusoid with an exponential decay; the ramped sinusoids were constructed by reversing the damped sinusoids in time. The spectra of damped and ramped sinusoids are very simple, consisting of one main peak whose width broadens as the half life of the decay function decreases. Fourier energy spectra of damped and ramped sounds with the same half life are identical. Auditory spectra from a more realistic model with a gammatone auditory filterbank show that the width of the spectral peak of the damped sinusoid is narrower than that of the ramped sinusoid for half lives in the range 2-16 ms and more like the auditory spectrum of an unmodulated sinusoid. Nevertheless, for half lives in this range, listeners consistently choose the ramped sinusoid as having the stronger sinusoidal quality.
PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3156
The sound of sinusoid: Time-interval models.
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 96, 1419-1428, 1994,
When an amplitude modulator that is asymmetric in time is applied to a sinusoid, the direction of the asymmetry affects the timbre of the sound. This paper extends the domain of the phenomenon with an experiment in which the modulator period varies with the carrier frequency to fix the number of carrier periods per envelope period. This fixes the shape of the wave within a cycle of the sound across carrier frequencies, and it fixes the shape of the main peak in the spectrum of the sound. When presented with pairs of damped and ramped sounds having the same half life, listeners choose the ramped sound as having the stronger sinusoidal component provided the sinusoids are discriminable. Discrimination is limited to conditions where the half life is one millisecond or more. At longer half lives, performance is near ceiling for carrier frequencies up to 1600 Hz; above this, performance falls off as carrier frequency increases. The sound quality differences in damped and ramped sinusoids are explained in terms of a time-interval model of hearing that simulates our auditory images of sounds.
PATTERSON, R.D. & AKEROYD, M.A. APU 3157
Time-interval patterns and sound quality.
In G. Manley, G. Klump, C. Koppl, H. Fastl & H. Oeckinghaus (Eds), Advances in Hearing Research (Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Hearing, World Scientific, Singapore), in press.
In this paper it is argued that the auditory system converts the temporal information in the auditory nerve into some form of multi-channel post-stimulus-time (PST) histogram, and that this form of the 'phase information' provides insight into sound quality that the Fourier phase spectrum does not. The discussion focuses on three new timbre discriminations that are difficult to explain in spectral terms. An Auditory Image Model (AIM) of hearing is introduced to convert the sounds into dynamic, multi-channel, PST histograms by means of a simple cochlea simulation and a form of strobed temporal integration. The histograms reveal that there is a time-interval basis for the timbre discriminations, and that the simulated auditory images provide a basis for understanding the sound qualities associated with these stimuli.
PATTERSON, R.D. & AKEROYD, M.A. APU 3288
Time-interval patterns and auditory images
In H. Kawahara (Ed.), Proceeding of the ATR Workshop on "A Biological Framework for Speech Perception and Production", Kyoto, Japan, pp. 49-56, 1995.
We have known for almost half a century that the firing of auditory nerve fibres is phase locked to the motion of the basilar partition at frequencies up to 4-5 kHz. But relatively little progress has been made in understanding the role of this fine-grain timing information in perception. In this paper we argue that successful timbre modelling and source identification will require appropriate processing of the time-interval patterns observed in the auditory nerve. To this end, we present a computational model of perception that simulates the neural activity pattern produced by a sound and then our auditory image of the sound. This simulated auditory image is, in essence, an array of dynamic, multi-cycle, PST histograms, one for each frequency channel in the model. We compare spectral models of sound quality with the auditory image model using damped and ramped sinusoids and iterated rippled noise. We show how the time-interval patterns in the auditory image can explain 1) the asymmetric perception of tonality in damped and ramped sinusoids, and 2) the detectability of white noise presented in iterated noise and vice versa; equal energy white noise and iterated noise lead to crossover masking differences of 20 dB!
PATTERSON, R.D., Anderson, T. & ALLERHAND, M. APU 3158
The auditory image model as a preprocessor for spoken language.
In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (Yokohama, Japan), pp. 1395-1398, 1994.
In the auditory system, the primary fibres that encode the mechanical motion of the basilar partition are phase locked to that motion, and auditory processing in the mid-brain preserves this information. The time intervals in these neural patterns are on the order of milliseconds and so traditional speech preprocessors (like MCC and MFCC systems), with frames on the order of 15 milliseconds, remove the time-interval information from the representation. The performance of these systems deteriorates badly when the speaker is in a noisy environment with competing sources. In this paper, we describe a) an auditory model designed to stabilise repeating time-interval patterns, b) the 'data-rate problem' associated with auditory models as speech preprocessors, c) a strategy for developing a noise resistant auditory spectrogram for speech recognition, and d) recent recognition results with a monaural auditory spectrogram.
PATTERSON, R.D. & DATTA, J. APU 3154
Extending the frequency range of existing warning sounds.
AAM HAP Auditory Warnings: Progress Report No. 1, APU Contract Report, 1994.
Several years ago the Applied Psychology Unit prepared a set of twelve auditory warnings for use in military helicopters. They were restricted to low frequency sounds because that is all the headphones passed. Recently the DRA asked us to extend the frequency range of the sounds to 12kHz without changing their sound quality. This report describes three methods investigated for extending the bandwidth of these existing auditory warnings.
See ALLERHAND, M. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3150
ALLERHAND, M. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3151
Anderson, T. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3152
Irino, T. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3153
Robinson, A., HOLDSWORTH, J., PATTERSON, R.D. &
Fallside, F. APU 3159
Yost, W.A., Sheft, S., Shofner, B. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3287
Pizzamiglio, L., Bergego, C., Halligan, P., Hömberg, V.,
ROBERTSON, I.H., Weber, E., WILSON, B.A., Zoccolotti, P. &
Deloche, G. APU 3075
Factors affecting the clinical measurement of visuo-spatial neglect.
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the Assessment and Rehabilitation of Brain-damaged Patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action, pp. 59-72. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
The present study examined a battery of tests to evaluate unilateral spatial neglect; the tests included different tasks involving several modalities of spatial exploration mapping perceptual, motor, attentional and personal or extrapersonal space dimensions. The subjects, 121 right brain damaged patients with unilateral neglect, were studied in seven laboratories in four European Countries. Relationships among the various tests were examined by correlations, a cluster analysis and by an analysis of individual cases. Different sensitivity was found among various tests for detecting neglect performances. Both the cluster analysis and the single case analysis clearly pointed out a segregation between personal and extrapersonal neglect. An analysis of the large cluster, including a variety of tests of extrapersonal neglect, together with the study of single cases, suggests the possibility of differentiating the various manifestations of spatial neglect which can be interpreted on the basis of the description of other individual cases previously appearing in the literature. Finally, the present study indicated the relative stability of neglect following the acute phase and its independence from age.
Plaut, D.C., McClelland, J.L., Seidenberg, M.S. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3273
Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains.
Psychological Review, in press.
We develop a connectionist approach to processing in quasi-regular domains, as exemplified by English word reading. A consideration of the shortcomings of a previous implementation (Seidenberg and McClelland, 1989, Psych. Rev.) in reading nonwords leads to the development of orthographic and phonological representations that capture better the relevant structure among the written and spoken forms of words. In a number of simulation experiments, networks using the new representations learn to read both regular and exception words, including low-frequency exception words, and yet are still able to read pronounceable nonwords as well as skilled readers. A mathematical analysis of the effects of word frequency and spelling-sound consistency in a related but simpler system serves to clarify the close relationship of these factors in influencing naming latencies. These insights are verified in subsequent simulations, including an attractor network that reproduces the naming latency data directly in its time to settle on a response. Further analyses of the network's ability to reproduce data on impaired reading in surface dyslexia support a view of the reading system that incorporates a graded division-of-labour between semantic and phonological processes. Such a view is consistent with the more general Seidenberg and McClelland framework and has some similarities with - but also important differences from - the standard dual-route account.
POULTON, E.C. APU 3260
Bias by stimuli before the start of an investigation.
Behavioral and Brain Science, in press.
In his target article Lockhead (1992) calls attention to numerous complications that present a valid straightforward or Fechnerian interpretation of psychophysical data. Here I describe 3 additional sources of bias, all involving the influence of stimuli presented before the start of an investigation. The investigator may start by describing in the instructions what he regards as the appropriate geometric range of numbers. This can influence the subjects when they have no idea what numbers to use. Alternatively the investigator may start with an illustrative investigation, using what he regards as an appropriate range of numbers. When an investigator wishes to measure the absolute thresholds of hearing of his subjects, he may do so immediately before asking for numerical magnitude judgments. This provides a low anchor for subsequent magnitude judgments, which can distort the judgments.
Price, C., Wise, R., Watson, J., PATTERSON, K., Howard, D. &
Frackowiak, R. APU 3179
Brain activity during reading: The effects of exposure duration and task.
Brain 117, 1255-1269, 1994.
Brain activity during reading tasks was investigated using positron emission tomography (PET). The aim was to account for differences in the results of two previous studies by systematically varying the type of reading task and the exposure duration of the word stimuli. Both variables strongly influenced patterns of brain activity. There were three types of task - (i) reading aloud, (ii) reading silently and (iii) lexical decision on visually presented words and pseudowords. Reading aloud and reading silently engaged the left middle and superior temporal regions, confirming the important role of these areas in visual word processing. The areas principally engaged during lexical decision were the left inferior and middle frontal cortices and the supplementary motor area: activity in these areas suggests that the subjects were using a phonological strategy to perform the task. There was also a significant effect of exposure duration, with activity being greater for short (150ms) exposure durations than for long (1000ms) exposure durations. We conclude that until we understand how subtle variations in experimental design influence brain activity during reading tasks, the association of specific processing functions with individual anatomical areas activated during reading is premature.
PROCTOR, L.
See TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J., PROCTOR, L.,
LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
Rabbitt, P., MAYLOR, E.A., McInnes, L., Bent, N. & Moore, B. APU 3147
What goods can self-assessment questionnaires deliver for cognitive gerontology?
Applied Cognitive Psychology, in press.
The literature on the use of self-assessment questionnaires (SAQs) in age comparisons is reviewed and further empirical evidence is presented which indicates that older people complain of general loss of memory efficiency but, paradoxically, report fewer lapses than younger people in questionnaires. Data from Broadbent's cognitive failures questionnaire (CFQ) provide a basis for discussions of the reliability and consistency of SAQs and of their validity as tools to explore a wide range of age-related changes, including objective changes in cognitive ability and functional competence, and changes in people's understanding of their own cognitive processes. We examine the extent to which responses given by older and younger people reflect emotional and personality variables such as depression, anxiety, neuroticism, extroversion and perceived locus of control. Self-reports by elderly adults on the CFQ and other SAQs simultaneously provide so many different kinds of information about the changes people experience and their attitudes and adaptations to old age that apparently straightforward analyses give misleading answers. Methodological precautions are suggested for determining which questions can be asked, and which analyses can answer them.
Reid, I., YOUNG, A.W. & Hellawell, D.J. APU 3093
Voice recognition impairment in a blind Capgras patient.
Behavioural Neurology, 6, 225-228, 1993.
Reports a case of a blind woman, MN, who experienced the Capgras delusion. She thought that her pet cat had been replaced by a replica which was "ill-intentioned" towards her. MN's case shows that the basis of the Capgras delusion cannot lie exclusively in damage to the visual system. However, testing of MN's auditory recognition abilities revealed a deficit in the recognition of familiar voices. This impairment is consistent with the view that the Capgras delusion may arise in connection with damage to recognition mechanisms, and parallels findings of face processing impairments in sighted Capgras patients.
Riccio, M., Pugh, K., Jadresic, D., Burgess, A., Thompson, C.,
WILSON, B.A., Lovett, E., Baldeweg, T., Hawkins, D.A. &
Catalan, J. APU 3068
Neuropsychiatric aspects of HIV-1 infection in gay men: Controlled investigation of psychiatric, neuropsychological and neurological status.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37, 819-830, 1993.
The aim of this study was to determine whether HIV infection is associated with psychiatric morbidity and neuropsychological impairment in asymptomatic and early symptomatic stages of disease in gay men. The subjects were 100 gay men (68 HIV -ve, 32 HIV +ve, 6 being CDC IV). All subjects were recruited at the time of requesting their first HIV test and the assessment was double-blind to HIV serostatus. There were no differences in psychiatric status or neuropsychological performance between the HIV -ve and HIV +ve groups. Multiple regression analysis and logistic regression were used to identify factors associated with psychiatric morbidity, neuropsychological impairment and subjective reporting of memory problems and physical symptoms for all 100 subjects. Previous psychiatric history and current illegal (non-dependent) drug use were associated with psychiatric morbidity, poor education was associated with neuropsychological impairment and psychiatric status (score on HAD and PSE) was associated with subjective reporting of memory problems and physical symptoms.
Rieman, J., Lewis, C., YOUNG, R.M. & Polson, P.G. APU 3140
"Why is a raven like a writing desk?": Lessons in interface consistency and analogical reasoning from two cognitive architectures.
In B. Adelson, S. Dumais & J. Olson (Eds), Human Factors in Computing Systems ("Celebrating Interdependence", Proceedings of CHI '94 Conference, Boston, MA., 1994) pp. 438-444. New York: ACM, 1994.
Users who have worked with just one or two pieces of application software on a computer system are often faced with the need to use a new piece of software on the same system. Consistency between program interfaces is intended to make the new program easier to learn in this situation, but how "consistency" should be defined is not always clear. We present a model of analogical reasoning that describes how users rely on interface consistency to induce correct actions in a new situation. Versions of the model are implemented in ACT-R and Soar. The model yields a clearer and more principled understanding of design guidelines that recommend interface consistency.
Robbins, T., Anderson, E., Barker, D., Bradley, A., Fearneyhough, C.,
Henson, R., Hudson, S. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3266
Working memory in chess.
Memory & Cognition, in press.
Three experiments investigated the role of working memory in various aspects of thinking in chess. Experiment 1 examined immediate memory for briefly presented chess positions from master games in players from a wide range of ability, following the imposition of various secondary tasks designed to block separate components of working memory. Suppression of the articulatory loop (by preventing subvocal rehearsal) had no effect on measures of recall, whereas the conditions of blocking the visuospatial sketchpad (manipulation of a keypad) or the central executive (random letter generation), had equivalent disruptive effects, in comparison with a control condition. Experiment 2 investigated the effects of similar secondary tasks on the solution (move selection) of tactical chess positions and a similar pattern was found, except that blocking the central executive was much more disruptive than in Experiment 1. Experiment 3 compared performance on two types of primary task, one concerned with solving chess positions as in Experiment 2, and the other a sentence re-arrangement task. The secondary tasks in each case were both designed to block the central executive, but one was verbal (vocal generation of random numbers) while the other was spatial in nature (random generation of key presses). Performance of the spatial secondary task was affected to a greater extent by the Chess primary task than the Verbal primary task. In none of the three experiments were there any differential effects between weak and strong players. These results are interpreted in the context of the working memory model, and previous theories of cognition in chess.
Roberts, A. & WILLIAMS, J.M.G. APU 3212
Effect of olfactory stimuli on mood: A case for aromatherapy?
British Journal of Medical Psychology, 65, 197-199, 1992.
Investigated the therapeutic effect of aroma. Twenty-two Ss were asked to visualize 20 positive (e.g., open fireplace) and 20 negative (e.g., congealed grease) phrases following exposure to either chamomile oil or a placebo (crushed green peppers). Chamomile oil significantly increased the latency for all images, and shifted mood ratings and frequency judgments in a more positive direction, suggesting a possible mode of action for such oils.
ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3082
Methodology in neuropsychological rehabilitation research.
Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 4, 1-6, 1994.
In this editorial, it is argued that single-case methodology has now advanced sufficiently that statistical treatment of all single-case data is desirable.
ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3090
Randomised controlled trials and single-instance experiments.
Physiotherapy, 80, p. 339, 1994.
This paper argues that single-case study designs are essential for the development of a scientifically-based approach to rehabilitation.
ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3136
Neuropsychology: Recovery after brain lesions.
In M. Swash & Wilden (Eds), Outcome of Neurological and Neurosurgical Disorders. Cambridge University Press, in press.
A number of questions are answered about recovery of neuropsychological function following brain damage: 1. What are the neuropsychological processes which may be involved in recovery of function following brain damage? A number of discrete neuropsychological processes underlie recovery of function, and these include a) overcoming dysfunctional compensatory mechanisms b) overcoming inhibition by functionally linked intact brain regions, c) compensatory mechanisms and functional adaptation, and d) motivational and emotional changes. 2. What are some of the courses of recovery following various types of brain damage? There are very variable courses of recovery following neuropsychological damage, and these depend on a number of factors including the complexity and redundancy of neuropsychological processes underlying a particular function, as well as on the degree to which executive and attentional functions are intact in the damaged brain. 3. Is there any evidence that neuropsychological rehabilitation can accelerate recovery? The evidence in favour of this proposition is scant but promising.
ROBERTSON, I.H., Bergego, C., Halligan, P., Hömberg, V.,
Pizzamiglio, L., Weber, E. & WILSON, B.A. APU 3073
Why do people with unilateral left neglect sometimes neglect to the right?
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the Assessment and Rehabilitation of Brain-damaged Patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action , pp. 79-84,Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
Evidence for ipsilesional neglect is presented, and explained in terms of compensatory scanning superimposed on impaired non-lateralised attention.
ROBERTSON, I.H. & Halligan, P. APU 3074
Introduction to unilateral neglect.
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the Assessment and Rehabilitation of Brain-damaged Patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action. pp. 55-57. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
This introduces a series of papers on neglect which point to the growing heterogeneity of the disorder.
ROBERTSON, I.H., Tegner, R., GOODRICH, S.J.& Wilson, C. APU 3142
Walking trajectory and hand movements in unilateral left neglect: A vestibular hypothesis.
Neuropsychologia, 32, 1495-1502, 1994.
This is the first systematic study of walking trajectories in unilateral neglect. Six patients with unilateral left neglect approached and walked through a doorway, and all six deviated to the right of center when doing so. Four of six significantly centered their walking trajectories by making left hand movements while approaching the doorway. The group effect of walking with no movements versus walking with hand movements was statistically significant. Age-matched control patients showed a similar but significantly smaller rightward deviation. The results are interpreted in terms of recent research in limb activation effects on neglect (Robertson, I.H. and North, N. Neuropsychologia, 30, 553-563, 1992), and also in the light of research showing close anatomical correspondence between the cortical projections of the vestibular nerve on the one hand, and the hand/arm representational fields of the central sulcus on the other.
ROBERTSON, I.H., Tegner, R. Tham, K., Lo, A. & NIMMO-SMITH, I. APU 3261
Sustained attention for unilateral neglect: Theoretical and rehabilitation implications
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, in press.
Many studies have shown a co-variation of unilateral neglect with non-lateralised attentional functions. Recently, Posner has argued that there are two separate neural systems which influence the posterior attentional system which is presumed to be impaired in unilateral neglect, namely the posterior system itself (located partly in the inferior parietal lobules) as well as a secondary modulatory sustained attention or vigilance system. This latter system is linked to the nor-epinephrine system, which is known to be more strongly represented in the right compared to the left hemisphere of the brain. If this hypothesis is true, then unilateral neglect should be improved by increasing activation of the sustained attention system. Eight patients suffering from chronic left unilateral neglect were trained to sustain their attention by a self-alerting procedure partially derived from Meichenbaum's self-instructional methods. Using a multiple-baseline-by-function design, as well as multiple-baseline-by-subject designs, statistically significant improvements in unilateral neglect as well in sustained attention were found following onset of sustained attention training, without corresponding improvements in control measures. Theoretical implications for the attentional underpinnings of unilateral neglect are discussed, as well as the rehabilitation implications of this training procedure.
See D'Erme, P., Gainotti, G., Bartolomeo, P. & ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3100
D'Erme, P., ROBERTSON, I.H., Bartolomeo, P. & Daniele, A. APU 3067
Gray, J.M., Shepherd, M., McKinlay, W.W.,
ROBERTSON, I.H. & Pentland, B. APU 3242
Halligan, P., ROBERTSON, I.H., Pizzamiglio, L.,
Hömberg, V., Weber, E. & Bergego, C. APU 3076
McDowell, I., Anderson, S., Wilson, C., Pentland, B. &
ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3099
Pizzamiglio, L., Bergego, C., Halligan, P., Hömberg, V.,
ROBERTSON, I.H., Weber, E., WILSON, B.A.,
Zoccolotti, P. & Deloche, G. APU 3075
Stachowiak, F.J., De Bleser, R., Deloche, G., Kaschel, R.,
Kremin, H., North, P., Pizzamiglio, L., ROBERTSON, I.H. &
WILSON, B.A. (Eds) APU 3072
Vincent, C. & ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3174
ROBINSON, K. APU 3062
Brightness and octave position: Are changes in spectral envelope and in tone height perceptually equivalent?
In I. Cross and I. Deliege (Eds), Music and the Cognitive Sciences 1993. Proceedings of Cambridge Conference on Music and the Cognitive Sciences 1990, pp. 83-85, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1993.
Rapid changes in spectral envelope have been reported to influence estimation of octave position by musically trained listeners. Musically trained and untrained listeners were asked to judge changes in spectral envelope as well as octave position for successively presented stimuli. Untrained listeners erroneously perceived unison intervals concurrent with a change in spectral envelope as octave intervals. Trained listeners were at ceiling performance. In a second experiment, performance was measured as a function of stimulus duration. Increases in duration did not affect spectral envelope discrimination, but did improve pitch interval identification. Furthermore, all listeners confused unison intervals as octave with a change in spectral envelope for durations of 7.5 ms. As duration increased, trained listeners improved their unison interval identification performance, but untrained listeners were unable to improve. The results support the view that brightness is formed earlier than pitch. Listeners with little or no musical training primarily rely on spectral cues, so that their octave position judgements are partially dependent on spectral envelope.
Robinson, A., HOLDSWORTH, J., PATTERSON, R.D. & Fallside, F. APU 3159
A comparison of preprocessors for the Cambridge recurrent-error-propagating-network speech recognition system.
In Proceedings of the First ICSLP (Kobe, Japan), pp. 1033-1036, 1990.
This paper makes a comparison of several preprocessors for the task of speaker independent phoneme recognition from the TIMIT database using a recurrent error propagation network recogniser. The paper evaluates FFT, filterbank, auditory model and LPC based techniques in the spectral and cepstral domains and adds some simple features such as estimates of the degree of voicing, formant positions and amplitudes. The paper concludes that the features do not make a significant contribution and that the spectral domain representations, independent of their derivation, are better suited to this task. However, we find that the recogniser was relatively insensitive to preprocessor and changes in the architecture and training of the recogniser are more significant. The current recognition rate on the TIMIT database of 61 symbols is 69.5% correct (64.0% including insertion errors) and on reduced 39 symbol set the recognition rate is 76.1% correct (70.4%). This compares favourably with the results of other methods, such as Hidden Markov Models, on the same task.
Russo, R. & ANDRADE, J. APU 3247
The directed forgetting effect in word fragment completion: An application of the process dissociation procedure.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, in press.
In three experiments, subjects were asked to remember and forget study words. In line with previous studies, a directed forgetting effect was observed in a word fragment completion task: Instructions to remember increased the completion of target fragments compared with instructions to forget (Experiment 1). Using the process dissociation procedure (Jacoby, 1991), it appeared that instructions to remember increased the estimates of intentional influences of memory but did not affect the estimates of automatic uses of memory (Experiments 1, 2 and 3). This suggests that directed forgetting effects in word fragment completion reflect the surreptitious influence of explicit memory in a nominal implicit memory task. However, a meta-analysis indicated that directed forgetting instructions affected automatic and intentional influences of memory in opposite directions. This finding casts doubt on the assumption of independence between automatic and intentional uses of memory. The implications for use of the process dissociation procedure are discussed.
Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G. & TEASDALE, J.D. APU 3205
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy - Maintenance Treatment.
Therapist Manual for Group Treatment, 1994.
This manual provides a detailed description (and therapist's instructions) for the pilot version of Attentional Control Training. This is a group, skills-based procedure that integrates aspects of cognitive therapy and mindfulness training in a programme to teach patients who have recovered from depression techniques to reduce the probability of relapse.
SELLEN, A.J. APU 3120
Detection of everyday errors.
Applied Psychology: An International Review 43, 475-498, 1994.
Although the study of errors has made an important contribution to our understanding of human action, the evaluation of action and the detection of slips have been largely ignored in psychology. In this paper, I examine the many ways in which errors were detected in a corpus of nearly 600 everyday slips and mistakes collected in a diary study. Using this collection, I propose a theoretical taxonomy of detection modes which aims broadly to describe the ways in which people realise their own errors in a wide variety of everyday tasks. The errors range from slips at the sensorimotor level, to memory lapses, to errors in judgement. The result is a general, descriptive framework within which to describe a range of detection mechanisms falling into three broad categories: Action-based detection, Outcome-based detection, and detection through Limiting Functions. The relation of type of error to detection mode, reasons for detection failure, and practical implications of the research are also discussed.
SELLEN, A.J. APU 3235
Remote conversations: The effects of mediating talk with technology.
Human-Computer Interaction, in press.
Three different videoconferencing systems for supporting multiparty, remote conversations are described and evaluated experimentally. Conversations using these systems were compared to same room (Experiment 1) and audio-only (Experiment 2) conversations. Specialized speech tracking equipment recorded the on-off patterns of speech which allowed objective measurement of structural aspects of the conversations such as turn length, pauses and interruptions. Contrary to expectation, systems in which visual cues such as selective gaze were absent produced no differences in turn-taking or in any other aspect of the structure of conversation. In fact, turn-taking was unaffected even when visual information was completely absent. Overall, only the Same Room condition showed any significant differences from any other condition; people in the same room produced more interruptions and fewer formal handovers of the floor than in any of the technology-mediated conditions. In this respect, the audio-only and video systems examined in these studies were equivalent. However, analyses of subjects' perceptions showed that subjects felt that visual access in mediated conversations was both important and beneficial in conversation. Further, there were indications that the particular design of the different video systems did affect some aspects of conversational behavior such as the ability to hold side and parallel conversations.
See Currie, M., Mackay, P., Morgan, C., Runciman, W.,
Russell, W., SELLEN, A.J., Webb, R. & Williamson, J. APU 3119
Eldridge, M., SELLEN, A.J. & BEKERIAN, D. APU 3231
Heath, C., Luff, P. & SELLEN, A.J. APU 3236
Kabbash, P., Buxton, W. & SELLEN, A.J. APU 3225
Lamming, M., Brown, P., Carter, K., Eldridge, M.,
Flynn, M., Louie, G., Robinson, P. & SELLEN, A.J. APU 3232
Williamson, J., Webb, R., SELLEN, A.J., Runciman, W. &
Van Der Walt, J. APU 3121
SPENCELEY, A.
See FLANAGAN, J.R., WING, A.M., ALLISON, S. & SPENCELEY, A. APU 3270
Stachowiak, F.J., De Bleser, R., Deloche, G., Kaschel, R., Kremin, H.,
North, P., Pizzamiglio, L., ROBERTSON, I.H. &
WILSON, B.A. (Eds) APU 3072
Developments in the assessment and rehabilitation of brain-damaged patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action.
Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
This is a compendium of reports of an EC concerted Action project on Neuropsychological Rehabilitation.
STRAIN, E., PATTERSON, K. & Seidenberg, M.S. APU 3274
Semantic effects in single word naming
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, in press.
Three experiments demonstrated that, for lower frequency words, reading aloud is affected not only by spelling-sound typicality, but also by a semantic variable, imageability. Subjects were slower and more error-prone to name exception words with abstract meanings (e.g., scarce) than either abstract regular words (e.g., scribe) or imageable exception words (e.g., soot). It is proposed that semantic representations of words have the largest impact on translating orthography to phonology when this translation process is slow or noisy (i.e., for low-frequency exceptions), and that words with rich semantic representations (i.e. high-imageability words) are most likely to benefit from this interaction.
TAYLOR, M.J.
See TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J., PROCTOR, L.,
LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
TEASDALE, J.D., TAYLOR, M.J., Cooper, Z., Hayhurst, H. &
Paykel, E.S. APU 3200
TEASDALE, J.D. APU 3202
Clinically relevant theory: Integrating clinical insight with cognitive science.
In P. Salkovskis & D.M. Clark (Eds), Frontiers of Cognitive Therapy. New York: Guilford Press, in press.
This chapter describes the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) approach to understanding depression and its psychological treatment.
TEASDALE, J.D., DRITSCHEL, B.H., TAYLOR, M.J., PROCTOR, L.,
LLOYD, C.A., NIMMO-SMITH, I. & BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3237
Stimulus-independent thought depends on central executive resources.
Memory and Cognition, in press.
Stimulus-independent thoughts (SITs) are streams of thoughts and images unrelated to immediate sensory input. Four experiments examined the contribution of aspects of working memory to production of SITs. In Experiments 1 and 2, interventions targeted on, respectively, phonological and visuo-spatial components of working memory both interfered with production of SITs, but there was evidence that these tasks also made demands on central executive resources. Experiments 3 and 4 specifically examined the hypothesis that production of SITs and control of non-proceduralised tasks both depend on central executive resources, and so should show mutual interference. In Experiment 3, prior practice on pursuit rotor and memory tasks reduced the interference with SITs from concurrent task performance. In Experiment 4, randomness within a random number generation task was less when SITs were being produced concurrently than when they were not. Results suggest that production of SITs depends on central executive resources.
TEASDALE, J.D., Segal, Z.V. & Williams, J.M.G. APU 3199
How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help?
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 25-39, 1995.
There is encouraging evidence that structured psychological treatments for depression, in particular cognitive therapy, can reduce subsequent relapse after the period of initial treatment has been completed. However, there is a continuing need for prophylactic psychological approaches that can be administered to recovered patients in euthymic mood. An information-processing analysis of depressive maintenance and relapse is used to define the requirements for effective prevention, and to propose mechanisms through which cognitive therapy achieves its prophylactic effects. This analysis suggests that similar effects can be achieved using techniques of stress-reduction based on the skills of attentional control taught in mindfulness meditation. An information-processing analysis is presented of mindfulness and mindlessness, and of their relevance to preventing depressive relapse. This analysis provides the basis for the development of Attentional Control Training, a new approach to preventing relapse that integrates features of cognitive therapy and mindfulness training and is applicable to recovered depressed patients.
TEASDALE, J.D., TAYLOR, M.J., Cooper, Z., Hayhurst, H. &
Paykel, E.S. APU 3200
Depressive thinking: Shifts in construct accessibility or in schematic mental models?
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, in press.
Alternative explanations for depression-related changes in thinking were examined. 41 depressed patients and 40 controls completed sentence stems involving social approval or personal achievement e.g. "If I could always be right then others would ______ me". The view that depressive thinking primarily reflects a generalised increase in accessibility of negative constructs predicts patients will give more negative completions (e.g. "dislike"). Alternatively, depression could affect the inter-relationships between constructs: use in depression of schematic mental models implying closer dependence of personal worth/acceptance on success/approval predicts patients may give more positive completions (e.g. "like"). Results supported the latter prediction and suggest depressive thinking reflects changes in high level mental models used to interpret experience.
See Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G. & TEASDALE, J.D. APU 3205
TOPLIS, R.
See WATTS, F.N., Cohen, J. & TOPLIS, R. APU 3085
TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3257
Study of a servo control strategy for projectile interception.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, in press.
Models of a servo control strategy for projectile interception proposed by Chapman (1968) are developed in order to determine how the strategy performs in the presence of important constraints known to limit the performance of human fielders - neural transport delays, limits on acceleration and speed, insensitivity to visual accelerations, internal noise and neuro-muscular lags. Simulation experiments were conducted for two cases: (i) The fielder is initially in the plane of projectile motion and moves forwards and backwards in this plane - the 1D case, for which published experimental data exist. (ii) The fielder is not initially in the plane of projectile motion - the 2D case. Simulations showed that Chapman's strategy is robust and works well in the 1D case despite the limiting constraints; model behaviour was found to be qualitatively similar to published data on human performance. In the 2D case the strategy works to some extent but performance is severely limited. Including an additional control action as originally suggested by Chapman can improve matters considerably. The problem of how to distinguish use of Chapman's strategy from an alternative predictive strategy is raised. Despite considerable problems in making such a distinction, simulation studies indicated a possible observable difference. This was tested in a simple experiment: the results did not enable the distinction to be made.
TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3258
Perceptual and cognitive processes in time-to-contact estimation: analysis of prediction motion and relative judgment tasks
Perception and Psychophysics, in press.
Three classes of task appear to involve time-to-contact (TTC) information. Coincidence anticipation (CA) tasks, relative judgement (RJ) tasks and interceptive actions (IAs). An important type of CA task used to study the perception of TTC is the prediction motion (PM) task. The question of whether it is possible to study the perceptual processes involved in the timing of IAs using PM and RJ tasks is considered. A revised version of the tau hypothesis is proposed as an account of the perceptual information processing involved in the control of fast IAs. This draws on the distinction between "motor" and "cognitive" visual systems. It is argued that task variables affect whether "cognitive" information processing is involved in performance, and can determine whether TTC information is used at all. Evidence is reviewed which suggests that PM and RJ tasks involve cognitive processing. It is argued that target viewing time, TTC at response initiation, amount of practice, and whether there is a period between target disappearance and response, are task variables which determine whether cognitive processing will influence responding.
TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3262
Two straw men stay silent when asked about the "direct versus inferential controversy"
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 1994.
This paper comments on a target article by A. Wertheim arguing that the author's focus on the direct versus inferential controversy is inappropriate. Not only can the data discussed in the target article shed little light on the controversy - contrary to the author's assertions - but by focusing on it the important empirical issues are obscured.
TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3269
Visual modulation of interceptive action: a reply to Savelsbergh.
Human Movement Science, in press.
This paper responds to the remarks of Savelsbergh on a previous paper of the author (APU 3059). Savelsbergh argues data he has published refute the suggestion that grasp adjustments made when catching a deflating ball reflect the subject's attempt to adapt the size of the grasp to the changing size of the ball. He also argues that his data support the continuous control of timing using visual time-to-collision information over a preprogrammed alternative model suggested in my paper (APU 3059). It is demonstrated that neither of Savelsbergh's claims are justified by the data he discusses.
TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3267
Correcting some misperceptions of time-to-collision: A critical note.
Perception, in press.
Comments on an article by Stewart, Cudworth and J.R. Lishman (1993, Perception, 22, 1227-1244) which presents a new source of time-to-collision information as an alternative to current theory. Stewart et al. argue that this new source of information overcomes difficulties they identify with the alternative "tau" theory and is supported by experimental results they present. It is argued that the tau theory presented by the authors is an outdated straw man. More up to date accounts of the information used to time interceptive actions, such as that proposed by the author, do not suffer from the inadequacies identified by Stewart et al. However, their alternative source of information is shown to suffer from the very inadequacies they try to avoid and it is argued that the data they present do not actually support this alternative.
See FLANAGAN, J.R. & TRESILIAN, J.R. APU 3209
TWEEDIE, L., BARNARD, P.J. & MAY, J. APU 3197
AnimICS v 5.0.
Electronic document, pub/amodeus/usemod/AnimICS_5.hqx @ ftp.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk, 1993.
This is a suite of animations of information flow within the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems architecture for a large range of examples. The examples are mainly drawn from Human-Computer Interaction. It is available by anonymous ftp, and can be run on reasonable big and fast Macintosh Computers. The file is constantly being updated.
Tyrrell, R., Holland, K., Dennis, D. & WILKINS, A.J. APU 3163
Coloured overlays, visual discomfort, visual search and classroom reading.
Journal of Research in Reading, 18, 10-23, 1995.
Sixty children aged 8-16 were shown a page of meaningless text covered by various combinations of eight different plastic overlays, of which seven were coloured and one was clear. By successive pairwise comparison, each child selected the overlay or combination of overlays that provided the greatest perceptual clarity of the text. Forty-six of the children aged 12-16 were divided into groups on the basis of reading ability. The children with poorer reading ability were more likely to choose a coloured overlay or combination of coloured overlays. In separate sessions in randomised order, with and without the chosen overlay combination, the children read for 15 minutes from a book of their choice. The overlay had little effect on reading initially, but after 10 minutes the children who chose a coloured overlay read more slowly without the overlay than with it. These children reported more symptoms of visual discomfort and showed signs of tiring when they read without the overlay. The visual search performance of the children who chose a coloured overlay was impaired, but improved to normal levels when the overlay was used.
Vincent, C. & ROBERTSON, I.H. APU 3174
Recovering from a medical accident: The consequences for patients and their families.
In C. Vincent, M. Ennis & R. Audley (Eds), Medical Accidents, pp. 150-166, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
The nature of the psychological trauma following medical accidents is reviewed, and recommendations made about better management of the victims of medical accidents. A medical accident, like other similar traumas, may affect every aspect of a person's life. It can lead to pain and disability, which in turn may affect employment prospects and financial security. There may also be psychological distress and changes to relationships with family and friends. Research on the effects of accidents of other kinds suggests that the psychological effects of an injury may be both sustained and severe (Malt, 1988; Landsman et al.,1990). In cases where the victim of an accident is not to blame, such as a medical accident, the psychological trauma is likely to be heightened (Brewin, 1984). Some adverse events may produce minimal physical disability, but have marked psychological consequences. Awareness during anaesthesia is one example of this, but many less traumatic experiences may also have profound consequences. There is only one study (Vincent et al., 1993), to our knowledge, that explores the wider effects of medical accidents on the patients involved. We shall therefore also review literature on the effects of other kinds of accident, but consider what difference it makes to a patient that they were injured in hospital rather than say, in a road accident. The situation is unusual in that the patient may be injured by the very people who were trying to help. Their reactions may be especially powerful and have a considerable impact on their relationships with health professionals. Staff involved may also have difficulty in knowing how to react in such a situation.
Vorberg, D. & WING, A. APU 3115
Modelle fur Variabilitat und Abhangigkeit bei der zeitlichen Steuerung.
In Enzyklopaedie der Psychologie Gottingen , pp. 223-320, Germany: Hogrefe Verlag fur Psychologie, 1994.
This chapter is concerned with exploring mechanisms of human timing. It focuses on variation, or more precisely, covariation, in the duration of intervals between events in a movement stream (responses). We interpret such statistical dependence in terms of a variety of linear models for the control of timing. We take a tutorial approach, making clear our use of simple tools of probability, so that the reader may feel encouraged to go further in developing and applying these models in new fields. While there remain a number of issues in mapping theory onto data deserving of a more rigorous statistical analysis, we suggest practical solutions to some of these problems so that the psychologically interesting work may proceed.
WARD, R., GOODRICH, S. & Driver, J. APU 3182
Grouping reduces visual extinction: Neuropsychological evidence for weight-linkage in visual selection.
Visual Cognition, 1, 101-129, 1994.
We tested two subjects following damage to right parietal cortex to see if their failure to detect a left visual stimulus in the presence of a simultaneous right stimulus (visual extinction) could be modulated by perceptual grouping between the left and right stimuli. Subjects performed a simple detection task for brief displays in which items could appear in the left or right visual field, both fields, or neither field. On trials in which items appeared in both fields, we found that left omissions (extinction errors) were dramatically reduced when the two items formed a good perceptual group, either on the basis of Gestalt factors such as similarity and symmetry (Experiment 1), or on the basis of forming a familiar configuration (Experiment 2). We suggest that extinction may be a spatially specific exaggeration of a normal attention limitation, in which the contralesional item is disadvantaged in the competition for selection. However, this obstacle to selection can be overcome if, as a result of grouping, ipsilesional and contralesional items become allies rather than competitors for selection.
See DUNCAN, J., WARD, R. & Shapiro, K. APU 3116
WATTS, F.N. APU 3086
An information processing approach to compulsive checking.
Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, in press.
Of the various obsessive-compulsive phenomena it seems that compulsive checking may be particularly likely to repay an information processing approach. There are indications that anxiety-targeted exposure methods are less appropriate to checking than cleaning. Also, repeated checking appears to result from an initial failure to process information adequately. Recent findings from experimental research on cognitive processes in obsessive-compulsive patients (e.g. difficulties in selective set rather than filtering tasks, poor memory for actions, etc.) provide indications that compulsive checking may arise from a failure of information processing. Clinical observations indicate that the quality of information processing involved in checking deteriorates as checking is repeated, due partly to a deterioration of mood and partly to proactive interference. This suggests the use of cognitive strategies to maximise the effectiveness of the first check, so as to reduce the need for repetition.
WATTS, F.N., Cohen, J. & TOPLIS, R. APU 3085
Personality and coping strategies on a stressful expedition.
Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 647-656, 1994.
Previous research has found that participation by young people in an international expedition organized by the British Schools Exploring Society is associated with positive change in a variety of self-report personality dimensions. The purpose of the present study was to supplement self-report questionnaire data with observers' ratings made by expedition leaders. The coping strategies used in relation to the physical and social stresses of the expedition were also assessed. The leaders' ratings showed stronger evidence of personality change than self-report measures. The correlations found between self-report measures and observer ratings of personality dimensions suggested that the expeditioners' self-perceptions were affected by the expedition and converged with the ratings of observers. Analysis of coping processes indicated that several strategies were used less in coping with a specific stress such as an expedition than they were reported as being used in general. Physical and social stresses of the expedition were handled differently, confirming the distinction between these two types of stress. In general the results expand upon current research on stress and coping, with the opportunity that an expedition provides for studying the same stress in a predictable sample of subjects.
See BADDELEY, A.D., WILSON, B.A. & WATTS, F.N. APU 3104
EAST, M.P. & WATTS, F.N. APU 3063
WHITTINGTON, J.E.
See YOUNG, R.M. & WHITTINGTON, J.E. APU 3192
WILKINS, A. APU 3079
Overlays for classroom and optometric use.
Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 14, 97-99, 1994.
Perceptual distortion of printed text can sometimes be reduced by placing upon the page a sheet of coloured plastic (overlay). The colour that best reduces the distortion differs from one individual to another and may need to be selected with precision. A set of overlays has been developed that samples the CIE UCS diagram systematically. The overlays are robust and have a matt finish. They can be combined in an intuitive way to provide a wide range of chromaticities.
WILKINS, A.J. APU 3160
Colour Control: a computer program to check the chromaticity of lenses and issue guidance for their use.
Applied Psychology Unit, 1992.
The program is used by Cerium Visual Technologies in the quality control of a process for ophthalmic tinting. Spectacle lenses are tinted according to prescriptions obtained using the Intuitive Colorimeter System (see APU 8166). The spectral transmission of each lens is measured and used by the program in three ways. (1) The program calculates the chromaticity coordinates of the dyed lens and compares these coordinates with the coordinates expected for the prescription, rejecting the dyed lens if necessary. (2) The program calculates the luminous transmission, the transmission of ultraviolet radiation, and the transmission of blue light. It also calculates the relative attenuation coefficients for signal lights. (3) The program issues the information in a digestible form separately for optometrists and for their patients, issuing warnings if the above parameters are outside the range recommended by British Standard 2724 for sunglasses.
WILKINS, A.J. APU 3162
Reading and individual preferences for illuminant chromaticity.
In Proceedings of Lux Europa (Edinburgh), 1994.
A simple optical device enabled observers to vary the hue and saturation of light incident upon a page of text, without any associated change in luminance. Observers were instructed to select a light they found comfortable for reading. Many chose coloured light that was strongly saturated. Those with migraine tended to avoid reddish hues, as did children with reading difficulties. The implications of these findings for lighting engineers are explored.
WILKINS, A.J. APU 3164
Photosensitive epilepsy associated with playing computer games.
Report commissioned by the Department of Trade and Industry, 1993.
Occasionally epileptic seizures are triggered by specific sensory stimulation, usually visual, but sometimes auditory and tactile. Seizures can also be triggered by particular trains of thought occasioned by activities such as playing chess or reading. Particular movements can trigger seizures, and be incorporated in the seizure itself. There are 19 reported cases of seizures whilst playing video games. In 14 of the 19 cases the patient was demonstrably photosensitive. In photosensitive patients, flicker in the range 4-60 flashes per second can induce seizures, as can patterns, particularly patterns of striped lines. The seizures are most likely when the pattern has many lines that alternate in brightness rather than colour, each line subtending between 8 and 60 minutes of arc at the eye. Many video games incorporate sequences of flicker and patterns with these epileptogenic characteristics. A conventional television picture can induce seizures although televisions with 100Hz scan, and those with liquid crystal screens are relatively safe, unless the video material is itself provocative. In general, the visual stimuli that cause seizures are those that are striking and attract attention, but it is possible to make video games visually interesting without the risk of seizures.
WILKINS, A.J. APU 3166
Matters Arising.
Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 15, 4, 1995.
The short article corrects some unfortunate misconceptions in an editorial concerning a double-masked study reported in APU 3161.
WILKINS, A.J., Evans, B., Brown, J., Busby, A., Wingfield, A.,
JEANES, R. & Bald, J. APU 3161
Double-masked placebo-controlled trial of precision spectral filters in children who use coloured overlays.
Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 14, 365-370, 1994.
We selected 68 children who reported benefit from individually chosen sheets of coloured plastic placed upon the page when reading, and who used these regularly without prompting. These children viewed text illuminated by coloured light in an apparatus that allowed the separate manipulation of hue (colour) and saturation (depth of colour), at constant luminance. Many of the children reported improvements in perception when the light had a chromaticity within a limited range, which was different for each individual. A pair of plastic spectacle lenses ('experimental' lenses) was dyed so as to provide the appropriate chromaticity under conventional white (CIE category F3) fluorescent light. An additional pair was prepared having very similar colour but with a chromaticity outside the range in which perception was reported to improve ('control' lenses). Each pair was provided for 1 month in random order. The children kept diaries (36 completed) recording symptoms of eye-strain and headache. The children and those responsible for their assessment were unable reliably to distinguish 'experimental' from 'control' lenses. Nevertheless, symptoms were less frequent on days when the 'experimental' lenses were worn (p < 0.003).
See Binnie, C.D., Harding, G.F., Richens, A. & WILKINS, A.J. APU 3285
Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenité, D., Dekker, E., Spekreijse, G.,
Brekelmans, G., WILKINS, A.J. & van Emde Boas, W. APU 3165
Tyrrell, R., Holland, K., Dennis, D. & WILKINS, A.J. APU 3163
WILLIAMS, J.M.G. & MACLEOD, A.K. APU 3207
Cognitive processes in parasuicide: Memory, hopelessness and schizotypal phenomena.
In G. Ferrari, M. Bellini & P. Crepet (Eds), Suicidal Behaviour and Risk Factors, pp. 597-602, Bologna: Monduzzi Editore, 1990.
Parasuicide (or deliberate self harm) remains a pressing clinical problem. Although much is known about distal variables which render a person vulnerable to parasuicide, less is known about the proximal variables which predict who will attempt suicide, and when. This paper summarises other research on autobiographical memory, hopelessness and the personality variable, schizotypy. It suggests that variation in each of these, and their interaction, can be associated with self harm. It indicates ways in which the cognitive processes mediating each may be understood. It draws out the therapeutic implications of this work.
See MACLEOD, A.K. & WILLIAMS, J.M.G. APU 3208
MACLEOD, A.K., WILLIAMS, J.M.G. & Linehan, M.M. APU 3211
Roberts, A. & WILLIAMS, J.M.G. APU 3212
Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G. & TEASDALE, J.D. APU 3205
TEASDALE, J.D., Segal, Z.V. & Williams, J.M.G. APU 3199
Williamson, J., Webb, R., SELLEN, A.J., Runciman, W. &
Van Der Walt, J. APU 3121
Human failure: An analysis of 2000 incident reports.
Anaesthesia & Intensive Care, 21, 678-683, 1993.
Information of relevance to human failure was extracted from the first 2,000 incidents reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study, a self-reporting system for anaesthetists. All reports were searched for human factors among the "factors contributing", "factors minimising", and "suggested corrective strategies" categories, and these were classified according to the type of associated human error. In 83% of reports elements of human error were scored by reporters. "Knowledge-based errors" contributed directly to about one-quarter of incidents; the outcome of one third of incidents was thought to have been minimised by prior experience of awareness of the potential problems. Correction of "rule-based errors" or provision of protocols or algorithms were thought, together, to have a potential impact on nearly half of all incidents. Failure to check equipment or the patient contributed to nearly one-quarter of all incidents, and inadequate crisis management contributed to a further 1 in 8. "Skill-based errors" (slips and lapses) were directly responsible for 1 in 10 of all incidents, and were thought to make an indirect contribution in up to one quarter. "Technical errors" were responsible for about 1 in 8 incidents. Analysing the relative contribution of each type of error for each type of problem allows the development of rational preventative strategies.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3070
Recent developments in the assessment of memory.
In F.J. Stachowiak, R. De Bleser, G. Deloche, R. Kaschel, H. Kremin, P. North, L. Pizzamiglio, I. Robertson & B. Wilson (Eds), Developments in the assessment and rehabilitation of brain-damaged patients: Perspectives from a European Concerted Action, pp. 99-105. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993.
A number of theoretical approaches have guided memory assessment procedures. The psychometric approach is based on statistical analysis, it includes measures of reliability, validity and performance of a selected sample of a given population. Anastasi (1982) gives a succinct account of the characteristics of psychological tests. The Wechsler Memory Scale - Revised provides an example of the psychometric approach. Localisation studies from neuropsychology (e.g. Milner, 1971) provide another approach to assessment whereby the examiner might attempt to assess deficits in the functioning of the right and left hemisphere, frontal lobes, temporal lobes and so forth. The development of theoretical models in the field of cognitive psychology has provided a rich source of support for assessors of brain injured people. For example, Baddeley and Hitch's working memory model has influenced the nature of assessment of neuropsychologically impaired people, particularly those with Alzheimer's Disease and other memory disorders. This model has enabled us to assess separately the individual components of working memory, visual and verbal memory, and semantic and episodic memory. Furthermore, the model allows us to explain or predict such dissociations as those seen between people with short-term and long-term memory deficits. Guided by such models, we have piloted tests to assess implicit memory and visual short-term memory.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3106
The management of acquired cognitive disorders.
In D.L. McLellan & B.A. Wilson (Eds), The Handbook of Rehabilitation Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press.
This chapter describes the major cognitive deficits resulting from brain injury and considers some rehabilitation programmes for the remediation or management of these deficits. Particular emphasis is placed on compensatory approaches. The chapter concludes with discussions on planning treatment and the evaluation of cognitive rehabilitation programmes.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3107
Research and evaluation in rehabilitation.
In D.L. McLellan & B.A. Wilson (Eds), The Handbook of Rehabilitation Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press.
This chapter aims to provide an overview of the different kinds of research and methodologies available to academics and professional researchers with the objective of increasing understanding among professionals engaged in the field of rehabilitation. It also discusses a number of ways in which the professional worker can use some of the methodologies to engage in research studies of their own design based on the work of their own particular unit.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3108
Management and remediation of memory problems in brain damaged adults.
In A.D. Baddeley, B.A. Wilson & F. Watts (Eds), Handbook of Memory Disorders. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 453-481, 1995.
This chapter describes some of the everyday problems faced by memory impaired people and their families. Practical suggestions are made for the management and remediation of both emotional and cognitive consequences of brain injury.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3109
Memory rehabilitation: Compensation for memory problems.
In L. Bäckman & R. Dixon (Eds), Psychological Compensation. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press.
This chapter describes the nature of memory problems following brain injury. Bäckman and Dixon's (1992) theoretical framework of psychological compensation was used to illustrate the origins, mechanisms, forms, and consequences of compensatory behaviour seen in people with severe memory problems. The major kinds of compensatory aids for this population were described, and consideration was given to the best ways to teach or encourage compensatory behaviour.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3110
Cognitive problems following stroke.
London: Chest, Heart and Stroke Association, 1994.
This booklet is written for stroke patients and their relatives. Besides the obviously visible effects of stroke, such as paralysis, weakness or loss of speech, there are often less obvious effects, and among these are what we call the cognitive problems. Cognition is a word which covers the mental processes involved in using language, knowing, learning, understanding, perceiving, attending, remembering, awareness, judgement, attitudes and so on. Cognitive problems arise when one or more of these processes are impaired by stroke and fail to work normally. A number of these problems are discussed in this booklet to enable carers to learn to recognise them and consequently be able to help the stroke person who suffers from them to try to ensure that the right treatment is given where necessary.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3244
The management of memory disorders in adults.
British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 413-415, 1994.
This paper provides a reference list of recent books, book chapters and journal articles concerned with the management of memory disorders in adults.
WILSON, B.A. APU 3245
Remediation of disorders of memory.
In F. Forette, Y. Christen & F. Boller (Eds), Plasticite Cerebrale et Stimulation Cognitive (Proceedings of the 7th Congress of Fondation Nationale de Gerontologie, Paris, 1993) , pp. 128-140, 1994.
The fact that we cannot restore memory functioning should not deter us from pursuing the means of improving patients' well-being. Memory impaired people and their families need therapy that will enable them to understand and cope with difficulties arising during adjustment to everyday life. Although the general guidelines and specific strategies offered here do not provide a cure, they may reduce to some extent some of the problems faced by memory impaired people. Success may come from such strategies as: by-passing difficulties through environmental restructuring; using alternative ways of remembering through external aids; using residual skills more efficiently through mnemonics and rehearsal techniques; and improving the emotional well-being of both patients and carers through the provision of information, explanations about the nature of memory deficits, relaxation exercises to reduce anxiety, and role playing to teach people how to explain their memory problems to people with whom they interact.
WILSON, B.A., BADDELEY, A.D., EVANS, J.J. & Shiel, A. APU 3102
Errorless learning in the rehabilitation of memory impaired people.
Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 4, 307-326, 1994.
We report six experiments comparing errorful and errorless learning in the teaching of new information to neurologically impaired adults with severe memory problems. The first experiment is a group study in which amnesic subjects, young controls, and older controls were required to learn two lists of words under two conditions. One of these required subjects to generate guesses that produced incorrect responses, and the other prevented guessing - permitting only correct responses. Conditions and lists were counter-balanced across subjects. People with amnesia scored significantly higher under the errorless condition. We further explored the principle of errorless learning in five single case studies in which severely memory impaired people were required to learn information analogous to that needed in everyday life. Tasks included learning names of objects and people, learning how to programme an electronic aid, remembering orientation items, and learning new items of general knowledge. In each case, errorless learning was superior to errorful learning.
WILSON, B.A. & Ivani-Chalian, R. APU 3103
Performance of adults with Down's syndrome on the Children's version of the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test: a brief report
British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 85-88, 1995.
We gave the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test for Children (RBMT-C) to 37 community dwelling adults with Down's Syndrome. Ages ranged from 19 to 44 years (mean 29 years, SD 6 years). We wanted to know (a) if the test could be administered to this group and (b) how people with Down's Syndrome compared with children aged 5 to 10 years. All subjects were able to participate in the test and all were 'off the floor'. Story recall was the hardest subtest for people with Down's Syndrome, while remembering to deliver a message was the easiest. We discuss the possible use of this test in studies comparing older people with Down's Syndrome with Alzheimer patients.
WILSON, B.A., Ivani-Chalian, R. & Aldrich, F. APU 3206
The Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test for Children aged 5-10 years.
Bury St Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company, 1991.
There are a few tests available for the assessment of children's memory, and none of these sample a wide range of memory functions. While existing tests may provide useful answers to theoretical questions they provide little guidance for the clinician trying to establish and alleviate practical difficulties encountered by the child in everyday life.
WILSON, B.A. & Wearing, D. APU 3105
Prisoner of Consciousness: A permanent state of just awakening.
In R. Campbell & M. Conway (Eds), Broken Memories: Neuropsychological Case Studies. Oxford: Blackwell, in press.
We report the case of Clive Wearing, a gifted musician and scholar who, at the height of his career, became infected by herpes simplex encephalitis in 1985. His amnesia is extremely severe in comparison with other reported cases, particularly in regard to both his retrograde amnesia, which extends back for virtually the whole of his life, and his episodic memory. As well as his episodic deficits, Clive has marked semantic memory impairments for both visual and verbal material. He believes he has just woken up and this state of awakening has persisted for over eight years. His musical ability appears to be relatively unaffected by his amnesia. We describe the onset of his illness and the nature of his memory dysfunctioning. We consider other musicians who have suffered brain damage, and we compare Clive to some of the well known amnesic patients in the literature.
See BADDELEY, A.D., WILSON, B.A. & WATTS, F.N. APU 3104
de Wall, C., WILSON, B.A. and BADDELEY, A.D. APU 3101
Jadresic, D., Riccio, M., Hawkins, D.A., WILSON, B.,
Shanson, D.C. & Thompson, C. APU 3239
Kapur, N., Barker, S., Burrows, E., Ellison, D., Brice, J., Illis, L.,
Scholey, K., Colburn, C., WILSON, B.A. & Loates, M. APU 3111
Pizzamiglio, L., Bergego, C., Halligan, P., Hömberg, V.,
ROBERTSON, I.H., Weber, E., WILSON, B.A.,
Zoccolotti, P. & Deloche, G. APU 3075
Riccio, M., Pugh, K., Jadresic, D., Burgess, A.,
Thompson, C., WILSON, B.A., Lovett, E., Baldeweg, T.,
Hawkins, D.A. & Catalan, J. APU 3068
ROBERTSON, I.H., Bergego, C., Halligan, P., Hömberg, V.,
Pizzamiglio, L., Weber, E. & WILSON, B.A. APU 3073
Stachowiak, F.J., De Bleser, R., Deloche, G., Kaschel, R.,
Kremin, H., North, P., Pizzamiglio, L., ROBERTSON, I.H. &
WILSON, B.A. (Eds) APU 3072
WING, A.M., CLAPP, S. & Burgess-Limerick, R. APU 3227
Standing stability in the frontal plane determined by lateral forces applied to the hip.
Gait and Posture, in press.
A method for disturbing standing balance using controlled horizontal forces at the hips is described. Its use is illustrated by two experiments evaluating the effect on hip position of sideways force applied for a fixed period of 5 s. In the first experimental increasing sway in the frontal plane was observed with increasing force (12.5, 25 and 37.5 N). In the second experiment it was observed that sway decreased with stance width. In both experiments there was greater sway at the onset of force than at its termination. The results suggest that the method may offer a simple and reliable method of evaluating the efficacy of neural mechanisms involved in the maintenance of standing balance.
See FLANAGAN, J.R., WING, A.M., ALLISON, S. & SPENCELEY, A. APU 3270
Haggard, P., Jenner, J. & WING, A.M. APU 3184
Vorberg, D. & WING, A. APU 3115
WRIGHT, P. APU 3224
Enhancing the usability of written instructions.
In Proceedings of conference on Public Graphics: Visual Information for everyday use. Published by Stichting Public Graphics Research, c/o Department of Psychonomics, Utrecht University, Netherlands, pp. 1.1-1.18.
Instructions pervade our dealings with machines, our relations with organisations and our use of consumer products. Yet many instructions are difficult to read or understand. Reasons for this are discussed and the numerous constraints surrounding information design are recognised. Most of the behavioural research on instructions has examined people's interactions with computers, and the few studies of non-computer instructions can be difficult for designers to find. Fortunately the general principles emerging from computer-based studies have relevance to other instructions and there is a growing understanding of how readers interact with such material. A framework articulating that interaction is described. It is based on a cognitive task analysis of following instructions. The cognitive processes within activities such as searching, interpreting, remembering and acting on instructions are outlined together with their design implications. Such a framework can promote a user-centred viewpoint when creating instructions. It may also be a valuable resource when design compromises need to be reached. Because psychologists are interested in cognitive processes, not in design options, little has come from the opportunities for dialogue between the design and research communities during the past decade. Some of the professional obstacles to such dialogue are outlined.
WRIGHT, P. APU 3228
Presenting technical information: A review of research findings.
In D.J. Oborne (Ed.), Ergonomics and Human Factors. Cheltenham, Glos.: Edward Elgar. [Reprinted from 1977], 1994.
This paper reviews research investigations into various aspects of the presentation of technical information.
WRIGHT, P. APU 3229
Phenomena, function and design: Does information make a difference?
In D.J. Oborne (Ed.), Ergonomics and Human Factors. Cheltenham, Glos.: Edward Elgar. [Reprinted from 1986], 1994.
This paper discusses three phenomena relating to written information: (a) the pervasiveness and importance of written technical information in working life, (b) the frequently poor design of written materials, (c) the failure of tasks involving written materials to engage the attention of many ergonomists outside the domain of HCI.
WRIGHT, P. & LICKORISH, A. APU 3222
Menus and memory load: Navigation strategies in interactive search tasks.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 40, 965-1008, 1994.
When tasks offer alternative methods for attaining subgoals, people may choose procedures that are cognitively less demanding - e.g. easier to learn, or faster, or needing fewer actions. Navigation choices were examined for tasks involving the location and comparison of information in an electronic document where computer-based memory aids were available to readers. Experiment 1 showed that subjects' navigation choices were better predicted by a GOMS analysis than by the number of actions (mouse clicks) required for alternative procedures. However, the GOMS model failed to predict subjects' choices in experiment 2. Here the previously chosen navigation method was modified to require more actions. This navigation method was still frequency chosen but subjects significantly increased their use of memory aids. The results of experiment 3 showed the method rejected by subjects in experiment 2 gave faster performance and reduced the use of some of the memory aids. This suggests that the number of motor actions when navigating determines the use of memory aids but not the choice of navigation method. Possibly perceptual characteristics, which may relate to subjective risk, need to be incorporated into models predicting the procedures that people will select in complex tasks.
WRIGHT, P., LICKORISH, A., HULL, A.J. & Ummelen, N. APU 3223
Graphics in written directions: Appreciated by readers but not writers.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9, 41-59, 1995.
Do people use sketches when giving written directions to help a stranger cross town? In an informal letter to a friend most people wrote directions in prose paragraph style (experiment 1). Sketches were rare even if writers had a street map as an aid. Yet most subjects could draw adequate sketch maps (experiment 2); and everyone said yes when asked hypothetically about including a sketch in a letter. If "designing" rather than "writing", people still did not include sketches (experiment 3). Any bias in the instructions was towards rather than against the use of sketches (experiment 4). The need to create the sketch was removed in experiment 5 by providing preformed sections of alternative routes in both words and diagrams. Almost everyone now included a sketch in their directions. In experiment 6 people's attention was drawn to diagrams by having them rate the usability of diverse route information immediately before writing their own directions. Although people rated directions that included diagrams as significantly more usable, they still did not include a sketch in their own directions. It is suggested that when giving written directions, inexperienced writers rely too heavily on how they would respond as speakers.
Wydell, T.N., Butterworth, B. & PATTERSON, K. APU 3276
The inconsistency of consistency effects in reading: The case of Japanese Kanji.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, in press.
Most Japanese Kanji characters have several different pronunciations, at least one ON-reading (of Chinese origin) and a KUN-reading (of Japanese origin); the appropriate pronunciation is determined by intra-word context. There are also Kanji characters which have a single ON-reading and no KUN-reading. With 2-character ON-reading Kanji words as stimuli, naming experiments were carried out to investigate print-to-sound consistency effects. The consistent Kanji words were those where neither constituent character has an alternative ON-reading or a KUN-reading, hence there can be no pronunciation ambiguity for these words. The inconsistent items were ON-reading words composed of characters which have KUN-readings that are appropriate to other words in which the characters occur, hence there should be some ambiguity about the pronunciation of the constituent characters. Six experiments yielded reliable effects of both word and character frequency/familiarity on speed and accuracy of word naming, but virtually no evidence for consistency effects. It is concluded that for Kanji, phonology is computed dominantly at the word rather than the character level.
Yost, W.A., Sheft, S., Shofner, B. & PATTERSON, R.D. APU 3287
Temporal account of complex pitch.
In H. Kawahara (Ed.), Proceeding of the ATR workshop on "A Biological Framework for Speech Perception and Production", Kyoto, Japan, pp. 57-63, 1995.
In recent years several scientists have described the crucial role that sound source segregation plays in hearing. An important variable in allowing the auditory system to determine the source of sound is the auditory system's sensitivity to the harmonic structure of the sound. We describe a class of complex pitch stimuli which we call iterated ripple noise (IRN). IRN produces a complex pitch, but in addition the IRN stimuli have a noisy timbre that appears along with the repetition pitch, much as if there were two sound sources that generated the IRN stimulus. We present human psychophysical evidence that IRN is processed temporally and not spectrally. In addition we present some physiological data from chinchillas showing the temporal sensitivity of units in the cochlear nucleus to IRN. We also show that the chinchilla processes ripple noise psychophysically similarly to the way humans do. The overall conclusion is that the pitch strength of IRN can be explained by the autocorrelation function of the stimulus. The results further demonstrate that for some of these IRNs, the auditory system is unable to discriminate one noise from another despite relatively large spectral differences, while for other comparisons discrimination is easy despite small spectral differences. These results support a temporal explanation for processing complex pitch stimuli.
YOUNG, A.W. APU 3241
Progress and neglect.
Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 4, 225-229, 1994.
Unilateral neglect is of especial interest because it presents a challenge to theories couched exclusively in terms of cognitive psychology, which seldom take the left-right dimension into account. Moreover, severe neglect is most commonly left-sided, and even those cognitive theories that do incorporate the left-right dimension give no convincing reasons as to why this should be. Neglect is not a single clinical entity, but characterising the different forms has proved difficult. However, a major determinant of neglect is the perceived location of a stimulus, rather than the sensory input itself, which implies that the problem can arise at a relatively high level of sensory analysis. A promising direction for further work is to follow Behrmann, Moscovitch, Black and Mozer's (1990) lead in linking findings to an explicit simulation, drawing on a model of normal performance.
YOUNG, A.W., Aggleton, J.P., Hellawell, D.J., Johnson, M.,
Broks, P. & Hanley, J.R. APU 3118
Face processing impairments after amygdalotomy.
Brain, 118, 15-24, 1995.
Reports an investigation of face processing impairments in DR, a 51-year-old woman with a partial bilateral amygdalotomy. DR was able to recognise pre-operatively familiar faces, but she showed generalised problems of name retrieval and a more circumscribed deficit affecting the recognition of faces learnt post-operatively. In contrast to her poor memory for new faces, DR's ability to match simultaneously presented photographs of unfamiliar faces was unimpaired. However, DR also experienced deficits in expression processing which compromised the recognition of emotion from people's faces; she was poor both at matching and at identifying photographs of emotional facial expressions. In addition, her interpretation of eye gaze direction was defective, showing a more general problem in reading social signals from the face. The presence of impairments affecting the learning of new faces and the comprehension of gaze direction and facial expressions of emotion is consistent with the hypothesis of a role for the amygdala in learning and social behaviour.
YOUNG, A.W., Flude, B.M., Hellawell, D.J. & Ellis, A.W. APU 3094
The nature of semantic priming effects in the recognition of familiar people.
British Journal of Psychology, 85, 393-411, 1994.
Reports experiments examining the nature of semantic priming effects in the recognition of familiar people. Experiment 1 showed that facilitation of the recognition of familiar target faces by related face primes occurs within the recognition system, since there is no equivalent priming when subjects are asked only to determine the sex of the target faces, rather than to recognise them as familiar. Experiments 2 and 3 examined the basis of the facilitatory effect of related primes, and showed that both for familiarity decision (Experiment 2 and Experiment 3) and face naming (Experiment 3) tasks it is primarily based on close association of the prime and target people, rather than common membership of a semantic category. This associative component of semantic priming was further explored in Experiment 4, which showed that cross-domain priming from face primes to target names was present for associated prime-target pairs, but was maximal when prime and target were the face (prime) and name (target) of the same person. The results of the experiments are consistent with the interactive activation simulation developed by Burton, Bruce and Johnston (1990), and set constraints which will have to be met by any other plausible account of semantic priming.
YOUNG, A.W., Hellawell, D.J., Wright, S. & Ellis, H.D. APU 3284
Reduplication of visual stimuli.
Behavioural Neurology, 7, 135-142, 1994.
Describes an investigation of PT, a man who experienced reduplicative delusions, which revealed significant impairments on tests of recognition memory for faces and understanding of emotional facial expressions. On formal tests of his recognition abilities, PT showed reduplication to familiar faces, buildings, and written names, but not to familiar voices. Reduplication may therefore have been a genuinely visual problem in PT's case, since it was not found to auditory stimuli. This is consistent with hypotheses which propose that the basis of reduplication can lie in part in malfunction of the visual system.
YOUNG, A.W., Humphreys, G., Riddoch, J., Hellawell, D, &
de Haan, E. APU 3095
Recognition impairments and face imagery.
Neuropsychologia, 32, 693-702, 1994.
Investigated face imagery for HJA and PH, who experience profound difficulties in recognising familiar faces. HJA's problems involve a perceptual impairment that compromises the integration of features into a coherent representation, and he does not show covert recognition of faces in indirect tests. In contrast, PH has shown extensive covert recognition effects, leading to the suggestion that his deficit occurs at a higher level of visual processing than HJA's. HJA and PH were given tasks intended to explore their ability to answer questions that depended on imaging single faces, and on configuration-based or feature-based comparisons of imaged sets of three faces. For all of these face imagery tasks, PH's overall performance was severely impaired. HJA, though, showed preserved face imagery when imaging single faces and when making feature-based comparisons between imaged faces. However, when configuration-based comparisons were demanded HJA also showed a severe and stable impairment of face imagery. These observations are inconsistent with the idea that face recognition impairments have a unitary underlying cause and vary only in severity. Instead, they imply multi-stage causation, with the nature of consequent impairments of face imagery being determined by the level at which the recognition deficit arises.
YOUNG, A.W., LEAFHEAD, K.M. & Szulecka, T.K. APU 3243
The Capgras and Cotard delusions.
Psychopathology, 27, 226-231, 1994.
Explores the relation between Capgras delusion (the belief that your relatives have been replaced by impostors) and the Cotard delusion (the delusional belief that you have died). At first sight, these delusions would seem to have little to do with each other, except that they both involve bizarre claims about existence (for self or others). On closer examination, however, there are other parallels. We summarise similarities in associated impairments of face perception, and argue that both delusions reflect an interaction of impairments at two levels. One set of contributory factors involves perceptual impairment, or anomalous perceptual experience. The other factors lead to an incorrect interpretation of this, for which we offer an explanation in terms of attribution theory. Although the Capgras and Cotard delusions are phenomenally distinct, they may therefore represent attempts to make sense of fundamentally similar experiences.
YOUNG, A.W. & Newcombe, F. APU 3251
What's in a face?
MRC News, No 64, 26-28, 1994.
This is an overview for a non-specialist audience, summarising studies of impairments of face perception carried out with the co-operation of a group of ex-serviceman who had suffered brain injuries from shrapnel wounds in the 1944 Normandy landings and the subsequent liberation of Europe. The findings show that impairments of face perception can be highly selective, leading to loss of ability to utilise one of the different types of social information read from the face. For example, in everyday life we not only want to know who someone is by recognising her or his face, but also to interpret that person's feelings by watching facial expressions. Among the ex-serviceman with brain injuries were people who were poor at familiar face recognition yet could identify facial expressions normally, or who showed the opposite pattern. The brain seems to allocate different aspects of the task of face perception to specialised areas; some regions are more closely involved in determining an individual's identity from their facial appearance, others in interpreting facial expressions of emotion.
See Reid, I., YOUNG, A.W. & Hellawell, D.J. APU 3093
YOUNG, R.M. & Abowd, G.D. APU 3190
Multi-perspective modelling of interface design issues: Undo in a collaborative editor.
In G. Cockton, S. Draper and G. Weir (Eds), People and Computers IX: (Proceedings of HCI '94), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 249-260, 1994.
Successful interface design respects constraints stemming from a number of diverse domains analysed by different disciplines. Modelling techniques exist within the individual disciplines, but there is a need for ways to weave together different techniques to provide an integrated analysis of interface design issues from multiple perspectives. We illustrate the relations and interplay between six different modelling techniques - two for system modelling, two for user modelling, one for interaction modelling, and one for design modelling - applied to a shared design scenario concerning the provision of an Undo facility for a collaborative editor. The resulting multi-perspective analysis provides a depth of understanding and a breadth of scope beyond what can be achieved by any one technique alone.
YOUNG, R.M. & WHITTINGTON, J.E. APU 3192
Interim report on means-ends analysis in Soar.
ESPRIT Basic Research Action 3066, Amodeus Project Document RP5/WP3 (also in Deliverable D5), 1990.
This Technical Report explores the issues raised by incorporating means-ends analysis (MEA) into Soar. It explains how the different kinds of knowledge needed for MEA can be coded in Soar, and describes the resulting behaviour. Possible variations are outlined and justifications offered for the choices made. Appendix 1 gives a "cookbook" for writing MEA programs in Soar, while Appendix 2 provides the Soar code for a simple planning example.
YOUNG, R.M. APU 3191
The unselected window scenario: Analysis based on the Soar cognitive architecture.
In G.D. Abowd (Ed.), Proceedings of the CHI'94 Research Symposium, in press.
The Unselected Window scenario is analysed by applying part of the Programmable User Model technique, to construct a model of the user in the Soar cognitive architecture. It is a property of Soar that although the initiation of a subgoal is an event within the architecture, its termination is not. So it is hard to devise a rule that will have Soar remember to perform secondary actions - such as reselecting window A - after the primary aim of the subgoal has been achieved. Further analysis, of how users can nevertheless avoid the error, leads to a refinement of the account. The interface can be redesigned so that the user explicitly communicates to the system the subordinate status of window B's selection.
See Rieman, J., Lewis, C., YOUNG, R.M. & Polson, P.G. APU 3140